Indo-European vocabulary. Original Russian vocabulary. It has been established that the distribution centers of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region

Factors in the formation of the vocabulary of the language

A modern lexical system capable of satisfying the nominative and communicative needs of a person in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. is the result of long development. The active vocabulary of a modern person includes units that have appeared quite recently ( server, voucher, copier, impeachment) and words that arose in the preliterate era ( white, go, mother).

The formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language reflects the evolutionary path of language development in the process of human development. The development of the external, material world and the development of the spiritual world of a person leads to a regular expansion, first of all, of vocabulary.

Vocabulary is the most dynamic level in the language system. Its development is caused by the need to name new phenomena of reality. At the same time, it is the lexical composition of the language that is the best keeper of the memory of the people. Having studied the vocabulary of the language of a certain people, one can understand the system of its moral, ethical views, character, features of material life, the natural environment in which this or that ethnic group exists or existed. Vocabulary by the composition of borrowings can also provide knowledge about the contacts of a nationality, an ethnic group with other peoples.

Lexical layers differing in origin

In the aspect of its origin, the vocabulary is divided, first of all, into layers native and borrowed vocabulary.

The main group of words of the modern Russian language is primordially Russian vocabulary.

native Russian is a word that arose in the Russian language or inherited from an older source language, regardless of what etymological parts, native Russian or borrowed, it consists of.

The original Russian words include boat and highway, the last word is formed from a word borrowed from the French language highway with a suffix -n-.

Traditionally, 4 chronological and linguistic layers are singled out in the formation of the original Russian vocabulary: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic and proper Russian words are distinguished.

The second group of Russian vocabulary - borrowing(words, phraseological units, including tracing papers and semi-calques), which got into the Russian language as a result of language contacts. The interaction of languages ​​proceeded in different periods of language development, for example, ship(a word of Greek origin) entered the common Slavic, from where it was transferred to Old Russian, then to modern Russian.

Indo-European lexical fund

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms

Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity.

According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization (See also the theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans: T.V. Gamkrelidze, V.V. Ivanov. Indo-European Language and Indo-Europeans: Reconstruction and Historical-Typological Analysis of Proto-Language and Proto-Culture (Tbilisi, 1984). The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​\u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit)

The words denoting

1) kinship terms: mother Daughter and etc.;

2) the name of the animals: goose, wolf, sheep and etc.;

3) the name of the trees: oak, birch and etc.;

4) the name of metals and minerals: copper, bronze and etc.

Common, East Slavic vocabulary

The second layer of the original Russian vocabulary in terms of time of formation is Common Slavonic vocabulary.

Common Slavic words- these are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the common Slavic language, which existed until the 5th-6th centuries. AD Such words are used, as a rule, in all Slavic languages. See Table 1.

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Table 1

Russian Polish Czech. Bolg.

Takebrać brá tbera

To bebyć bý tsm, byh

SeeWidzieć vidé tseeing, seeing

The Common Slavic language served as a source for the formation of all Slavic languages. It existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian.

Let us name some thematic groups characteristic of the common Slavic layer of native Russian vocabulary:

names of household items typical for a person of a primitive era: house, fire, axis;

names of animals, plants living in the places of residence of the ancient Slavs: tour, fox, deer;

names of natural phenomena: snow, stone, winter, storm, thunder, hail;

names of time intervals: month, year, century;

mineral names: gold, silver, iron.

East Slavic vocabulary- these are words that arose during the period of East Slavic linguistic unity - during the period of the existence of the Old Russian language, when the separation of the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages ​​​​had not yet occurred.

The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. within the territory of of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

These words are found in these three languages ​​and are not found in the languages ​​of other Slavic peoples.

See Table 2.

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Table 2.

Russian Ukrainian Belarusian Polish Czech

Walk walk walkscpacerovać prochazet

forget forget forgetmemoryć rememberat

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Typical thematic groups of the East Slavic layer are

1) names of animals, birds: squirrel, jackdaw, horse, bullfinch;

2) names of labor tools: axe, blade;

3) names of household items: tub, basket, crutch ;

4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;

5) names of settlements: village, freedom .

Proper Russian vocabulary

Actually Russian words- these are words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of its isolated existence, from the 14th century. Until now.

These words naturally appear in the language system as a response to the need to designate new phenomena of the material and spiritual culture of the Russian people and nation. Actually Russian words are almost all nouns formed with the help of suffixes -shchik, -ovshchik, -shchik, -stvostvo, -sha (mason, undertaker, cleaner, outrage, manicurist), using the suffix -tel with the value of the active subject ( fire extinguisher, fuse), from prefixed verbs using the non-affix method of word formation ( run, clamp), using the suffix - awn from adjectives ( partisanship). Properly Russian in origin are adverbs like motherly, in a foreign way, from participatory formations on -e type triumphantly, compound nouns ( TSU, timber industry) and many others.

A proper Russian word can be created

1) according to the Russian word-formation model from proper Russian morphemes, for example, millet millet - nickname, wheat - a, wheat - th;

2) according to Russian word-formation models from proper Russian and borrowed elements: highway highway - n - th, computer computer - n - th, flare races - klesh - and - be;

3) according to Russian word-building models from borrowed components: nihil - rev.

Actually Russian formations determine the specific features of the vocabulary of the Russian language, are the main source of development, reveal its potential and real possibilities.

Indo-European languages

one of the largest language families, which includes: the Hitto-Luvian, or Anatolian, group; the Indo-Aryan, or Indian, group; Iranian group; Armenian language; Phrygian; Greek group; Thracian; Albanian; Illyrian; Venetian language; Italian group; Romanesque group; celtic group; german group; Baltic group; Slavic group; okhara group. The belonging of some other languages ​​(for example, Etruscan) to the Indo-European languages ​​remains controversial.

Indo-European languages

one of the largest linguistic families of Eurasia. The common features of I. Ya., which oppose them to the languages ​​of other families, are reduced to the presence of a certain number of regular correspondences between formal elements of different levels associated with the same units of content (borrowings are excluded). Concrete interpretation of the facts of similarity I. Ya. may consist in postulating some common source of known I. I. (Indo-European proto-language, base language, variety of ancient Indo-European dialects) or in accepting the situation of a linguistic union, which resulted in the development of a number of common features in originally different languages. Such a development could, firstly, lead to the fact that these languages ​​began to be characterized by typologically similar structures, and, secondly, these structures received such a formal expression when more or less regular correspondences (transition rules) can be established between them. In principle, both indicated possibilities of interpretation do not contradict each other, but belong to different chronological perspectives. Composition of the Indo-European family of languages:

Hittite-Luvian, or Anatolian, group ≈ Hittite cuneiform, or Nesit, Luvian, Palaian, hieroglyphic Hittite, very close to Luvian (the oldest texts from the 18th century BC ≈ the inscription of King Anittas, then ≈ texts of ritual, mythological, historical, political, socio-economic, etc. character); Lycian, Lydian, Carian and some other languages ​​of Asia Minor of ancient times. Apparently, we can talk about the Hittite-Lydian and Luvian-Lycian subgroups.

Indian (or Indo-Aryan) group ≈ Vedic Sanskrit (the oldest texts ≈ the collection of hymns of the Rig Veda, end of the 2nd ≈ beginning of the 1st millennium BC, and individual ancient Indian words in the Near East sources from the middle of the 2nd millennium); the Middle Indian languages ​​- Pali, Prakrits and Apabhransha; newind. Languages ​​- Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Assamese, Oriya, Nepali, Sinhala, Gypsy, etc. - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e., the place of the Dardic languages ​​​​of Nurnstan is not completely determined.

Iranian group: Avestan and Old Persian (the most ancient texts - the collection of sacred books Avesta, inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, individual words from the lost Median language); Middle Iranian languages ​​- Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Khorezmian, Saka, Bactrian (the language of the inscription in Surkhkotal); new Iranian languages ​​- Persian, Tajik, Pashto, Ossetian, Kurdish, Baloch, Tat, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Munjan, Yaghnobi; Pamir - Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Vakhan, etc.

Armenian language (the oldest texts from the 5th century AD onwards - religious, historical, philosophical and other texts, in particular, translated ones).

The Phrygian language (attested by separate glosses, inscriptions and proper names ≈ 6th century BC and 1≈4 centuries AD, was apparently closely related to Armenian in many respects).

Greek group: Greek, represented by a number of dialect groups - Ionian-Attic, Arcadian-Cypro-Pamphylian ("Achaean"), Aeolian, Western, including Dorian (the oldest texts - Crete-Mycenaean inscriptions from Knossos, Pylos, Mycenae, etc. , written in linear writing and dating from the 15th-11th centuries BC, as well as Homeric poems); by the 3rd c. BC e. a general Greek Koine was formed, which later gave the Middle Greek language of the Byzantine era in the 6th-15th centuries. n. e., and further ≈ Modern Greek in two varieties ≈ dimotiki and kafarevus.

Thracian (in the eastern part of the ancient Balkans, known from single words, glosses and a few brief inscriptions; ancient Dacomisian dialects are associated with Thracian;

Albanian, known from texts from the 15th century. n. e., it is possible that it was a continuation of the Thracian, although a genetic connection with Illyrian is not excluded; it is possible that other extinct dialects of the ancient Balkans were somehow connected with Thracian, cf. "Pelasgian" (restored on the basis of ancient Greek vocabulary).

Illyrian language (represented by proper names and individual words in ancient texts relating to the western part of the Balkans, and a number of inscriptions in the Messapian language in southern Italy).

Venetian (represented by inscriptions, about 200, from northeastern Italy, 5th to 1st century BC).

The Italic group: Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, Faliscan, Pelignian, etc. (the oldest texts are the inscription on the Prenestin fibula, about 600 BC, the Iguva tables, the inscription from Bantia, etc.).

The Romance languages ​​that developed from Latin are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal, Italian, Sardinian, Romansh, Rumanian, Moldavian, Aromunian, and others; compare also the extinct Dalmatian.

Celtic group: Gaulish, Brittonic subgroup ≈ Breton, Welsh, Cornish; Gaelic subgroup - Irish, Scottish-Gaelic, Mank (the oldest texts - separate Gaulish words, proper names, glosses, a calendar from Coligny; Gaelic Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD, Irish glosses from the 7th century AD and further ≈ numerous Irish monuments).

Germanic group: East Germanic - Gothic and some other extinct dialects; Scandinavian or North Germanic ≈ Other North. and modern - Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese; West Germanic ≈ Old High German, Old Saxon, Old Low Frankish, Old English and modern ≈ German, Yiddish, Dutch, Flemish, Afrikaans, Frisian, English (the oldest texts ≈ runic inscriptions from the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Gothic translation of the Bible 4th century, separate glosses and brief inscriptions, etc.).

Baltic group: Western Baltic - Prussian, Yatvingian (extinct in the 17th century); East Baltic - Lithuanian, Latvian, extinct Curonian (the oldest texts - the Prussian Elbing Dictionary of the 14th century, translated religious texts from the 16th century).

Slavic group: East Slavic ≈ Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; West Slavic - Polish, Kashubian, Upper Lusatian, Lower Lusatian, Czech, Slovak, extinct dialects of the Polabian Slavs; South Slavic ≈ Old Slavonic, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian (apart from the rarest exceptions, the oldest texts date back to the 10th-11th centuries AD).

Tocharian group: Tocharian A, or Karashahr, Tocharian B, or Kuchan, in Xinjiang (texts of the 6th-7th centuries AD).

The belonging of some other languages ​​​​to I. Ya. remains controversial for the time being (cf. Etruscan). Apparently, many of I. I. have long since died out (Hitto-Luvian, Illyrian, Thracian, Venetian, Oscan-Umbrian, a number of Celtic languages, Gothic, Prussian, Tocharian, etc.), leaving no traces. In historical time, I. Ya. distributed almost throughout Europe, in Western Asia, in the Caucasus, in Iran, Central Asia, India, etc.; later expansion I. I. led to their distribution in Siberia, Northern and South America, Australia, in part of Africa. At the same time, it is obvious that in the most ancient era (apparently, as early as the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC), I. I. or dialects were absent in Asia, in the Mediterranean, in Northern or Western Europe. Therefore, it is usually assumed that the centers of distribution of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Of the features of the dialect division of the Indo-European language area, one can note the special proximity of the Indian and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages, respectively, and partly of Italian and Celtic, which gives the necessary indications of the chronological framework for the evolution of the Indo-European family. Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian reveal a significant number of common isoglosses. At the same time, the Balto-Slavic ones have many features in common with the Indo-Iranian ones. The Italic and Celtic languages ​​are in many ways similar to Germanic, Venetian and Illyrian. Hitto-Luvian reveals significant parallels with Tocharian, and so on.

The oldest connections I. Ya. are determined both by lexical borrowings and by the results of a comparative historical comparison of I. Ya. with such as the Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian, Kartvelian, Semitic-Hamitic languages. As a result of recent works (primarily Soviet scientists V. M. Illich-Svitych, as well as A. B. Dolgopolsky), the theory becomes probable, according to which all these families once constituted a single “Nostratic” superfamily.

Lit .: Benvenist E., Indo-European nominal word formation, trans. from Frants., M., 1955; Georgiev V.I., Studies in comparative historical linguistics, M., 1958; Ivanov V. V. Common Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Anatolian language systems, M., 1965; Meie A., An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Indo-European Languages, trans. from Frants., M.≈L., 1938; Portzig V., Division of the Indo-European language area, trans. from German., M., 1964; Illich-Svitych V. M., Experience in comparing Nostratic languages, M., 1971; Brugmann K., Delbrück B., Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, Bd 1≈5, Strass., 1897≈1916; Hirt H., Indogermanishe Grammatik, Bd 1≈7, Hdlb., 1921≈37; Kuryłowicz J., The inflectional categories of Indo ≈ European, Hdlb., 1964; Schrader O., Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, 2 Aufl., Bd 1≈2, V. ≈ Lpz., 1917≈29; Pokorny J., Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1≈2, Bern ≈ Münch., ; Walde A., Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen, Bd 1≈3, Hrsg. von J. Pokorny, V. ≈ Lpz.., 1926≈32; Watkins, C., Indogermanische Grammatik, Bd 3 ≈ Formenlehre, Tl 1, Hdlb., 1969.

V. N. Toporov.

Wikipedia

Indo-European languages

Indo-European languages is the most widespread language family in the world. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth, the number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. According to the views of some modern linguists, it is part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.

Some languages ​​that begin to appear in history around 2000. BC in the space from Hindustan in the east to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean in the west and from Scandinavia in the north to the Mediterranean Sea in the south, have many common features that make them recognize them as different forms of the same dialect that existed before. Of these languages, the following are still represented, at least by one of their dialects: Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Slavic, Albanian, Armenian, Greek, Germanic, Celtic, Italian (Latin). This unknown dialect is conditionally called the "Indo-European" language (German scientists call it "Indo-Germanic"). Accordingly, we include among the Indo-European languages ​​\u200b\u200bany language that at any moment, in any place, at any stage of change represents is the form of the indicated adverb and which, therefore, continues it in uninterrupted succession.

This definition is purely historical: it does not suggest any characteristic common to all these languages; it only establishes the fact that there was a moment in the past when these languages ​​constituted one language. There is, therefore, not a single feature by which it would always be possible to determine the language as Indo-European. For example, in Indo-European, the animate gender was opposed to the inanimate (middle), and within the animate, the opposition of male and female was often carried out; but some languages, such as Romance, Lithuanian, and Latvian, have lost the distinction between animate and inanimate; in others, as, for example, in Armenian and New Persian, there is no distinction at all between genders. In order to establish the belonging of a given language to the number of Indo-European, it is necessary and sufficient, firstly, to find in it a certain number of features characteristic of the Indo-European, such features that would not be explained if the given language was not a form of the Indo-European language, and, secondly, secondly, to explain how, in general, if not in detail, the structure of the language under consideration correlates with the structure that the Indo-European language had.

The coincidences of individual grammatical forms are evident; on the contrary, coincidences in vocabulary have almost no evidence at all. Indeed, from a foreign, completely different language, there are no borrowings of a grammatical form or a separate pronunciation; here it is possible to borrow only the totality of the morphological or articulatory system, and this means a change in language; but often a single word or a whole group of words is borrowed, referring to a certain number of things, especially technical words, in the broadest sense of the term; borrowings of words occur independently of one another, sometimes they can be made in unlimited quantities. From what is in Finnish many Indo-European words, it cannot be deduced that it belongs to the Indo-European languages, since these words are borrowed from Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Germanic or Slavic languages; from the fact that in the New Persian language there are a lot of Semitic words, it cannot be concluded that it is not an Indo-European language, since all these words are borrowed from Arabic. On the other hand, no matter how different the appearance of the language from the Indo-European, it does not follow that this language is not Indo-European: over time, the Indo-European languages ​​\u200b\u200bturn out to have less and less common features, however, as long as they exist and no matter how they are transformed, they cannot lose their quality as Indo-European languages, for this quality of theirs is only a reflection of a historical fact.

The general similarity of the morphological structure proves almost nothing, because the possible linguistic types are not diverse. Individual details are decisive evidentiary force, excluding the possibility of a coincidence.

There is no reasonable internal basis for the case of the subject to be characterized by the ending -s. The presence in the language of the nominative case of the singular with the final -s gives the right to consider this language Indo-European, especially since in most languages ​​the case of the subject coincides with the very form of the name without any ending. Since the proof has already been obtained by a whole series of particular coincidences, it remains only to deepen it, to establish that the morphological system of the language in question in its entirety can be explained as the result of a modification or a series of successive modifications of the initial linguistic state. It is possible that the “Indo-European language”, in turn, is only a form of some pre-existing language, the representatives of which are also other languages, both now existing and attested by ancient texts. also between Indo-European and Semitic, with which the "Hamitic languages" are also connected; some "Asian" languages.

We can only assume that all the languages ​​of the listed groups are related to each other. However, if a number of correspondences between the Indo-European and other language groups, nothing will change in the system: only over the comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages ​​a new comparative grammar is being built, which, of course, will be relatively meager, just as the comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages ​​is built on the richer and more detailed comparative grammar, say, of the Romance languages; we will go one step deeper into the past, with less significant results, but the method will remain the same.

Chapter 1 Conclusions

Indo-European Studies is a section extremely important for comparative historical linguistics, since it studies the most common language family in the world. Indo-European studies are based on the study of correspondences between similar elements of Indo-European languages ​​(with an orientation towards their ancient state) and the interpretation of these correspondences.

A comparative historical study of the Indo-European languages ​​has revealed regular correspondences between their sounds, words and forms. This can be explained by the fact that they are all descendants of one extinct ancient language from which they originated. Such a source language is called a proto-language.

The kinship of languages ​​is manifested in their systematic material similarity, i.e., in the similarity of the material from which the exponents of morphemes and words that are identical or close in meaning are built in these languages.

Romance Italic Indo-European Studies

Encyclopedia of Organisms.

Proto-Slavic (Indo-European) language

A.A. Tyunyaev

Indo-European languages ​​(or Ario-European, or Indo-Germanic), one of the largest linguistic families of Eurasia. The common features of the Indo-European languages, which oppose them to the languages ​​of other families, are reduced to the presence of a certain number of regular correspondences between formal elements of different levels associated with the same content units (borrowings are excluded).

A concrete interpretation of the facts of the similarity of the Indo-European languages ​​may consist in postulating a certain common source of known Indo-European languages ​​(Indo-European proto-language, the base language, a variety of ancient Indo-European dialects) or in accepting the situation of a linguistic union, which resulted in the development of a number of common features in originally different languages.

The Indo-European family of languages ​​includes:

1. Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group - from the 18th century. BC.;
2. Indian (Indo-Aryan, including Sanskrit) group - from 2 thousand BC;
3. Iranian (Avestan, Old Persian, Bactrian) group - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC;
4. Armenian language - from the 5th century. AD;
5. Phrygian language - from the 6th century. BC.;
6. Greek group - from the 15th - 11th centuries. BC.;
7. Thracian language - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC;
8. Albanian language - from the 15th century. AD;
9. Illyrian language - from the 6th century. AD;
10. Venetian language - from 5 BC;
11. Italian group - from the 6th century. BC.;
12. Romance (from Latin) languages ​​- from the 3rd century. BC.;
13. Celtic group - from the 4th c. AD;
14. German group - from the 3rd century. AD;
15. Baltic group - from the middle of the 1st millennium AD;
16. Slavic group - (Proto-Slavic from 2 thousand BC);
17. Tocharian group - from the 6th century. AD

On the misuse of the term "Indo-European" languages

Analyzing the term "Indo-European" (languages), we come to the conclusion that the first part of the term means that the language belongs to the ethnic group called "Indians", and with them the same geographical concept - India. Regarding the second part of the term "Indo-European", it is obvious that "-European" means only the geographical distribution of the language, and not its ethnicity.

If the term "Indo-European" (languages) is intended to indicate the simple geography of the distribution of these languages, then it is at least incomplete, since, showing the distribution of the language from east to west, does not reflect its distribution from north to south. And also misleading about the modern distribution of "Indo-European" languages, much wider than indicated in the title.

Obviously, the name of this language family should be generated in such a way that it reflects the ethnic composition of the first speakers of the language, as is done in other families.

It has been established that the distribution centers of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Therefore, it should be noted that the circumstance, as a result of which the Indian languages ​​were added to the Indo-European family of languages ​​- only as a result of the conquests of India made by the Aryans and the assimilation of its indigenous population. And from this it follows that the contribution of the Indians directly to the formation of the Indo-European language is negligible and, moreover, harmful from the point of view of the purity of the "Indo-European" language, since the Dravidian languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the indigenous people of India had their low-level linguistic influence. Thus, a language named using their ethnic designation by its own name leads away from the nature of its origin. Therefore, the Indo-European family of languages ​​in terms of the term "Indo-" should be more correctly called at least "ario-", as indicated, for example, in the source.

Regarding the second part of this term, there is, for example, another reading indicating ethnicity - "-Germanic". However, the Germanic languages ​​- English, Dutch, High German, Low German, Frisian, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish - although they represent a special branch of the Indo-European group of languages, differ from the rest of the Indo-European languages ​​in their peculiar features. Especially in the field of consonants (the so-called "first" and "second movement of consonants") and in the field of morphology (the so-called "weak conjugation of verbs"). These features are usually explained by the mixed (hybrid) nature of the Germanic languages, layered on a clearly non-Indo-European foreign language basis, on the definition of which the opinions of scientists differ. It is obvious that the Indo-Europeanization of the "proto-Germanic" languages ​​proceeded in a similar way, as in India, by the Aryan tribes. Slavic-German contacts began only in the 1st - 2nd centuries. AD , therefore, the influence of German dialects on the Slavic language in antiquity could not take place, and later it was extremely small. The Germanic languages, on the contrary, were so strongly influenced by the Slavic languages ​​that they themselves, being originally non-Indo-European, became a full part of the Indo-European language family.

From here we come to the conclusion that instead of the second part of the term "Indo-European" (languages), it is wrong to use the term "-Germanic", since the Germans are not historical generators of the Indo-European language.

Thus, the largest and oldest branch of languages ​​\u200b\u200bis named after two non-Indo-European peoples formatted by arias - Indians and Germans, who were never the creators of the so-called "Indo-European" language.

On the Proto-Slavic language as a possible progenitor of the "Indo-European" family of languages

Of the seventeen representatives of the Indo-European family indicated above, the following languages ​​cannot be the progenitors of the Indo-European language by the time of their foundation: the Armenian language (from the 5th century AD), the Phrygian language (from the 6th century BC), the Albanian language ( from the 15th century AD), the Venetian language (from the 5th century BC), the Italic group (from the 6th century BC), the Romance (from Latin) languages ​​​​(from the 3rd century BC). BC), the Celtic group (from the 4th century AD), the Germanic group (from the 3rd century AD), the Baltic group (from the middle of the 1st millennium AD), the Tocharian group (from the 6th . AD), Illyrian language (from the 6th century AD).

The most ancient representatives of the Indo-European family are: the Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group (from the 18th century BC), the “Indian” (Indo-Aryan) group (from 2 thousand BC), the Iranian group (from the beginning 2nd millennium BC), Greek group (from the 15th - 11th centuries BC), Thracian language (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC).

It is worth noting the existence of two mutually differently directed objective processes in the development of the language. The first is the differentiation of languages, a process that characterizes the development of related languages ​​in the direction of their material and structural divergence through the gradual loss of elements of a common quality and the acquisition specific traits. For example, Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages ​​arose through differentiation on the basis of Old Russian. This process reflects the stage of the initial settlement over considerable distances of a people who were previously united. For example, the descendants of the Anglo-Saxons who moved to the New World developed their own version of the English language - American. Differentiation is a consequence of the difficulty of communicative contacts. The second process is the integration of languages, a process in which previously differentiated languages, collectives previously used different languages(dialects), begin to use the same language, i.e. merge into one language community. The process of language integration is usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the respective peoples and involves ethnic mixing. Especially often the integration of languages ​​occurs between closely related languages ​​and dialects.

Separately, we will put the subject of our study - the Slavic group - since in the classification given it is dated to the 8th - 9th centuries. AD And this is not true, because in unanimous agreement, linguists say that " the origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times". At the same time, understanding the term " deep antiquity"Obviously not a hundred or two years, but much longer periods of history, the authors indicate the main stages in the evolution of the Russian language.

From the 7th to the 14th century there was an Old Russian (East Slavonic, identified by the source) language.

“Its characteristic features are: full harmony (“crow”, “malt”, “birch”, “iron”); pronunciation "zh", "h" in place of the Proto-Slavic *dj, *tj, *kt ("I walk", "svcha", "night"); change of nasal vowels *o, *e into "u", "i"; the ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tense; the ending "-" in names with a soft stem to "-a" in the genitive case of the singular ("earth"); many words that are not attested in other Slavic languages ​​(“bush”, “rainbow”, “bunch”, “cat”, “cheap”, “boot”, etc.); and a number of other Russian traits.

Particular difficulties for understanding the consubstantiality of the Slavic language are created by some language classifications. So, by classification, carried out according to phonetic features, the Slavic language is split into three groups. In contrast, the data of the morphology of the Slavic languages ​​represent the unity of the Slavic language. All Slavic languages ​​have retained declension forms, with the exception of the Bulgarian language (apparently, due to its least developed among the Slavic languages, it was chosen by the Judeo-Christians as Church Slavonic), which has only pronoun declension. The number of cases in all Slavic languages ​​is the same. All Slavic languages ​​are closely related lexically. A huge percentage of words are found in all Slavic languages.

The historical and comparative study of the Slavic languages ​​determines the processes experienced by the East Slavic languages ​​in the most ancient (pre-feudal) era and which single out this group of languages ​​in the circle of the languages ​​closest to it (Slavic). It should be noted that the recognition of the commonality of linguistic processes in the East Slavic languages ​​of the pre-feudal era should be considered as the sum of slightly varying dialects. Obviously, dialects arise historically with the expansion of territories occupied by representatives of a previously one language, and now a dialecting language.

In confirmation of this, the source indicates that the Russian language until the 12th century was the language of ALL-RUSSIAN(source called "Old Russian"), which

“Initially, throughout its entire length, it experienced general phenomena; phonetically, it differed from other Slavic languages ​​in full harmony and the transition of common Slavic tj and dj into h and zh. And further, the common Russian language only “from the XII century. finally divided into three main dialects, each having its own special history: northern (northern Great Russian), middle (later Belarusian and southern Great Russian) and southern (Little Russian)" [see. also 1].

From the 1st to the 7th centuries. the common Russian language was called Proto-Slavic and meant late stage Proto-Slavic.

From the middle of the 2nd millennium, the eastern representatives of the Indo-European family, whom the autochthonous Indian tribes called Aryans (cf. Ved. aryaman-, Avest. airyaman- (Aryan + man), Persian erman - “guest”, etc.), separated from the Proto-Slavic space, as indicated above, located on the territory of modern Russia, in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Aryans began to penetrate the northwestern regions of India, forming the so-called ancient Indian (Vedic and Sanskrit) language.

In the 2nd - 1st millennium BC Proto-Slavic stood out "from a group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages". From the definition of the concept of "dialect" - a kind of language that has retained its main features, but also has differences - we see that Proto-Slavic is, in essence, the "Indo-European" language itself.

“Slavic languages, being a closely related group, belong to the family of Indo-European languages ​​(among which the Baltic languages ​​are the closest). The closeness of the Slavic languages ​​is found in the vocabulary, the common origin of many words, roots, morphemes, in syntax and semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, etc. The differences - material and typological - are due to the millennial development of these languages ​​in different conditions. After the collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity, the Slavs for a long time represented an ethnic whole with one tribal language, called Proto-Slavic - the ancestor of all Slavic languages. Its history was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages: for several millennia, the Proto-Slavic language was the only language of the Slavs. Dialect varieties begin to appear only in the last millennium of its existence (the end of the 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD) ” .

The Slavs entered into relations with various Indo-European tribes: with the ancient Balts, mainly with the Prussians and Yotvingians (long-term contact). Slavic-German contacts began in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. and were quite intense. Contact with the Iranians was weaker than with the Balts and Prussians. Of the non-Indo-European, especially significant were the connections with the Finno-Ugric and Turkic languages. All these contacts are reflected to varying degrees in the vocabulary of the Proto-Slavic language.

Speakers of languages ​​of the Indo-European family (1860 million people), originating from a group of closely related dialects, in the 3rd millennium BC. began to spread in Asia Minor south of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caspian region. Given the unity of the Proto-Slavic language for several millennia, counting from the end of the 1st millennium BC. and giving the concept of "several" the meaning of "two" (at least), we get similar figures when determining the time period and come to the conclusion that in the 3rd millennium BC. (according to the 1st millennium BC) the common language of the Indo-Europeans was precisely the Proto-Slavic language.

On the basis of insufficient antiquity, none of the so-called “most ancient” representatives of the Indo-European family fell into our time interval: neither the Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group (from the 18th century BC), nor the “Indian” (Indo-Aryan) group (from the 2nd millennium BC), neither the Iranian group (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), nor the Greek group (from the 15th - 11th centuries BC), nor the Thracian language (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC).

“according to the fate of the Indo-European mid-palatal k’ and g’, the Proto-Slavic language is included in the satom group (Indian, Iranian, Baltic and other languages). The Proto-Slavic language has experienced two significant processes: the palatalization of consonants before j and the loss of closed syllables. These processes transformed the phonetic structure of the language, left a deep imprint on the phonological system, led to the emergence of new alternations, and radically transformed inflections. They took place during the period of dialect fragmentation, therefore they are not equally reflected in the Slavic languages. The loss of closed syllables (the last centuries BC and the 1st millennium AD) gave a deep originality to the Proto-Slavic language of the late period, significantly transforming its ancient Indo-European structure.

In this quotation, the Proto-Slavic language is placed on a par with the languages ​​within the same group, which includes the Indian, Iranian and Baltic languages. However, the Baltic language is much later (from the middle of the 1st millennium AD), and at the same time it is still spoken by a completely insignificant part of the population - about 200 thousand. And the Indian language is not actually the Indian language of the autochthonous population of India, since it was brought to India by the Aryans in the 2nd millennium BC. from the northwest, and this is not from Iran at all. This is from the side of modern Russia. If the Aryans were not Slavs living on the territory of modern Russia, then a legitimate question arises: who were they?

Knowing that the change in the language, its isolation in the form of an adverb is directly related to the isolation of the speakers of different dialects, one could conclude that the Proto-Slavs separated from the Iranians or the Iranians separated from the Proto-Slavs in the middle or end of the 1st millennium BC. but

“Significant deviations from the Indo-European type already in the Proto-Slavic period were morphology (mainly in the verb, to a lesser extent in the name). Most of the suffixes were formed on the Proto-Slavic soil. Many nominal suffixes arose as a result of the merger of the final sounds of the foundations (the theme of the foundations) with the Indo-European suffixes -k-, -t-, etc. , - akъ, etc. Having retained the lexical Indo-European fund, the Proto-Slavic language at the same time lost many Indo-European words (for example, many names of domestic and wild animals, many social terms). Ancient words were also lost in connection with various prohibitions (taboos), for example, the Indo-European name of the bear was replaced by the taboo medvedü - “honey eater” .

The main means of forming syllables, words or sentences in Indo-European languages ​​is stress (lat. Ictus = beat, stress), a grammatical term that refers to the different shades of strength and musical pitch observed in speech. Only it combines individual sounds into syllables, syllables into words, words into sentences. The Indo-European proto-language had a free stress that could stand on different parts a word that also passed into some individual Indo-European languages ​​​​(Sanskrit, ancient Iranian languages, Baltic-Slavic, Proto-Germanic). Subsequently, many languages ​​have lost much of the freedom of stress. Thus, the ancient Italic languages ​​and Greek underwent a limitation of the primary freedom of stress by means of the so-called "law of three syllables", according to which the stress could stand on the 3rd syllable from the end, unless the second syllable from the end was long; in this last case, the stress had to change to a long syllable. Of the Lithuanian languages, Latvian fixed the stress on the initial syllable of words, which was done by individual Germanic languages, and of the Slavic languages, Czech and Lusatian; from other Slavic languages, Polish received the stress on the second syllable from the end, and from the Romance languages, French replaced the comparative variety of Latin stress (already shackled by the law of three syllables) with a fixed stress on the final syllable of the word. Of the Slavic languages, Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Polabian and Kashubian have retained free stress, and of the Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Old Prussian. The Lithuanian-Slavic languages ​​still have a lot of features characteristic of the stress of the Indo-European proto-language.

Of the features of the dialect division of the Indo-European language area, one can note the special proximity of the Indian and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages, respectively, and partly of Italian and Celtic, which gives the necessary indications of the chronological framework for the evolution of the Indo-European family. Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian reveal a significant number of common isoglosses. At the same time, the Balto-Slavic ones have many features in common with the Indo-Iranian ones. The Italic and Celtic languages ​​are in many ways similar to Germanic, Venetian and Illyrian. Hitto-Luvian reveals significant parallels with Tocharian, and so on. .

Additional information about the Proto-Slavic-Indo-European language can be found in sources describing other languages. For example, about the Finno-Ugric languages, the source writes:

“the number of Finno-Ugric speakers is about 24 million people. (1970, est.). Similar features that are systemic in nature allow us to consider that the Uralic (Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic) languages ​​are genetically related to the Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Yukaghir and other languages ​​and developed from the Nostratic parent language. According to the most common point of view, Proto-Finno-Ugric separated from Proto-Samodian about 6 thousand years ago and existed approximately until the end of the 3rd millennium BC. (when the division of the Finno-Permian and Ugric branches occurred), being widespread in the Urals and the Western Urals (hypotheses about the Central Asian, Volga-Oka and Baltic ancestral homes of the Finno-Ugric peoples are refuted by modern data). The contacts with the Indo-Iranians that took place during this period ... "

The quotation should be interrupted here, because, as we have shown above, the Aryans-Proto-Slavs were in contact with the Finno-Ugric peoples, who taught the Proto-Slavic language to the Indians only from the 2nd millennium BC, and the Iranians did not go to the Urals during the specified period of time. went and themselves acquired the "Indo-European" language also only from the 2nd millennium BC. " ... are reflected by a number of borrowings in the Finno-Ugric languages. In the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC the resettlement of the Finno-Permians took place in the western direction (up to the Baltic Sea)» .

You can specify the origin and development of the Russian language - the language of the Russian nation, one of the most common languages ​​​​of the world, one of the official and working languages ​​of the UN: Russian(from the 14th century) the language is a historical heritage and a continuation Old Russian(1 - 14 centuries) language, which until the 12th century. called common Slavic, and from the 1st to the 7th centuries. - Proto-Slavic. The Proto-Slavic language, in turn, is the last stage of development Proto-Slavonic(2 - 1 thousand BC) language, in the 3rd millennium BC. incorrectly called Indo-European.

Therefore, when deciphering the etymological meaning of a Slavic word, it is incorrect to indicate any Sanskrit as a source of origin, since Sanskrit itself was formed from Slavic by polluting it with Dravidian.

Literature:

1. Literary encyclopedia in 11 volumes, 1929-1939.
2. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, " Soviet Encyclopedia”, in 30 volumes, 1969 - 1978.
3. Small encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron, “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1890-1907.
4. Miller V.F., Essays on Aryan mythology in connection with ancient culture, vol. 1, M., 1876.
5. Elizarenkova T.Ya., Mythology of the Rigveda, in the book: Rigveda, M., 1972.
6. Keith A. B., The religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, H. 1-2, Camb., 1925.
7. Ivanov V.V., Toporov V.N., Sanskrit, M., 1960.
8. Renou L., Histoire de la langue sanscrite, Lyon-P., 1956.
9. Mayrhofer M., Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindischen, Bd 1-3, Hdlb., 1953-68.
10. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", in 86 volumes, 1890 - 1907.
11. Sievers, Grundzuge der Phonetik, LPTs., 4th ed., 1893.
12. Hirt, Der indogermanische Akzent, Strasbourg, 1895.
13. Ivanov V.V., Common Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Anatolian language systems, M., 1965.

The study of the vocabulary of modern English is of great interest from the point of view of etymology, since it includes a huge number of words from many languages ​​belonging to different groups (Latin, Greek, French, German, etc.). Approximately 70% of the vocabulary of the English language is borrowed words and only 30% are native words. It should be noted, however, that not all native vocabulary is among the most frequently used words, just as the most frequent words do not always belong to native English. The Roman conquest, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests, the British colonial system played a large role in the development of the vocabulary of the English language.

IN English language as one of the languages ​​of the West Germanic group, the following layers of vocabulary are distinguished:

1. Common Indo-European layer of words, which forms the basis of the lexical composition of the Germanic languages. These include the following:

a) all pronouns and numerals;

b) names of family members (e.g., English mother, other Ind. mātar, Greek mātēr, lat. māter);

c) names of body parts and biological properties of a person (for example, English nose, other Ind. nāsā, Latin nasus, German Nase);

d) names of living beings (for example, English ewe, other Ind. avih, Greek o(v)is, Latin ovis);

e) names of natural phenomena, plants, substances (for example, English night, Russian night, other Ind. nakti, Greek nyx, German Nacht);

f) the most common adjectives (for example, Russian new, Old Ind. navas, Greek ne(v)os, Latin novus, German neu);

g) verbs denoting the most common actions and states (for example, Russian to see, to know, other Ind. vid “to know”, Greek (v)idein, Latin vidēre).

2. General Germanic words a) names of persons friendb) parts of a personfingerc) poultry and animalshorse, verdg) surrounding phenomena and the world land, seaad) names of human labor productionhousee) seasons g) frequently used verbs, adjectives and adverbs

3) The third group of native English vocabulary is distinguished by the greatest originality. It includes words that are a purely English combination of morphemes of different origin. Each of the morphemes in such words has parallels in a number of related languages, but their combination does not occur outside of English. The noun garlic (D.A. gar - leac) has correspondences of the first morpheme in Old Norse (geirr - spear), German (Ger - dart) and the second morpheme in Icelandic (laukr - leek), Danish (log), Dutch (look) , German (Lauch). The combination of these morphemes does not occur in any of these languages.

From a morphological point of view, native words are monosyllabic, maximum two-syllable; with phonetics and graphics - the presence of graphons w, wh, tw, sw, y-write, dwell at the beginning of a word, elements dg, tch, ng, sh, th, ee, ll, ew; from the point of view of style - all primordial ones are neutral; most native English words are ambiguous, having the ability to form new words in a variety of ways.