The concept of the project and its characteristics. Project management in tourism The concept of "project management", characteristics and features

B) the project is a one-time, non-cyclical activity;

C) there are no fundamental differences.

3. What are the restrictions on project implementation?

A) culturological;

B) study of the situation and development of the company;

D) financial

D) all of the above restrictions.

5 What are the three main limitations of the project:

A) time, schedule, quality

B) time, money, schedule

c) time, money, quality

D) schedule, money, time

6. The main characteristics of the project should include:

A) availability of alternative technical solutions;

B) the complexity of the project;

C) duration of the project;

D) all of the above characteristics.

7. Select the term for which the definition is given: "the owner of the project and the future consumer of its results"

1. 
   Project investor
2. 
   Project customer
3. 
   Coordinating Council
4. 
   Project curator
5. 
   Initiator of the project
6. 
   Project Manager
7. 
   Project product consumers

1. 
   Project investor
2. 
   Coordinating Council
3. 
   Project curator
4. 
   The project team
5. 
   Project management team
6. 
   Project Manager
7. 
   Project product consumers
8. 
   Initiator of the project
9. 
   Project customer

A) project management plan;

B) project charter;

C) project schedule;

D) the complexity of the project.

10. Development of the project concept includes the following steps:

A) pre-investment studies;

B) the formation of the idea of ​​the project;

C) design analysis;

D) assessment of the viability and financial feasibility of the project.

11. Structural decomposition of the project is:

1. 
   
2. 
   The structure of the organization and delegation of authority of the team implementing the project
3. 
   Schedule of receipt and expenditure of resources necessary for the implementation of the project

1. 
   The end of the project is announced
2. 
   Authorized the start of the project
3. 
   An enlarged project plan is approved

1. 
   Visual representation in the form of graphs and diagrams of the entire hierarchical structure of the project work
2. 
   The structure of the organization and delegation of authority of the team implementing the project
3. 
   Schedule of receipt and expenditure of resources necessary for the implementation of the project

1. 
   big budget
2. 
   High degree of uncertainty and risks
3. 
   The goal is to make a profit as a result of the project implementation

Task 2.

Present a hierarchical structure of work of a software project for the development of an information base on the 1C: Enterprise 8.3 platform with levels of detail.

Task 3.
Build a work matrix and a network diagram based on the initial data. The circle on the network diagram represents the event, the arrow represents the work. The duration is shown at the top.

The concept of "project" combines a variety of activities characterized by a number of signs, the most common of which are the following:

» focus on achieving specific goals, certain results;

» coordinated implementation of multiple, interrelated actions;

» limited length in time, with a definite beginning and end.

The difference between a project and a production system is that a project is single, not cyclic activity. Serial However, output does not have a predetermined end in time and depends only on the presence and magnitude of demand. When demand disappears, the production cycle ends. Production cycles in their pure form are not projects. Recently, however, the design approach has been increasingly applied to processes focused on continuous production. For example, projects to increase production to a specified level within a certain period, based on a given budget, or the fulfillment of certain orders that have contractual delivery dates..

The project as a system of activity exists exactly as long as it takes to obtain the final result. The concept of the project, however, does not contradict the concept of the firm or enterprise and is fully compatible with it. Moreover, the project often becomes the main form of activity of the firm.

Exist a number of definitions of the term "project”, each of which has the right to exist, depending on the specific task facing the specialist.

Here are some of them.

In the most general way project(English project) is “something that is conceived or planned, for example, a large enterprise” (Webster Dictionary).

From a systemic point of view approach, the project can be considered as a process of transition from the initial state to the final state - the result with the participation a number of restrictions and mechanisms (Fig. 1.1.1).

Rice. 1.1.1. The project as a process of transition of the system from the initial state to the final one

In "Project Management Knowledge Code" project - some task with certain initial data and the required results (goals) that determine the way to solve it. The project includes an idea (problem), means of its implementation (problem solving) and results obtained in the process of implementation (Fig. 1.1.2).

Rice. 1.1.2. Main elements of the project

Investment project is understood as an investment action providing for investment of a certain amount resources , including intellectual, financial, material, human , to obtain the planned result and achieve certain goals in a timely manner.

financial result investment project is most often profit / income, tangible result - new or reconstructed fixed assets (objects) or acquisition and use of financial instruments or intangible assets followed by earning income.

In the case when the results of the project implementation are some physical objects (buildings, structures i, industrial complexes), the definition of the project can be specified as follows:

PROJECT - purposeful, pre-designed and planned creation or modernization of physical objects, technological processes, technical and organizational documentation for them, material, financial, labor and other resources, as well as management decisions and measures for their implementation.

So, in the modern sense, projects - something that changes our world: construction residential building or industrial facility, program research work, reconstruction enterprises, creation of a new organization, development of new equipment and technology, the construction of a ship, the creation of a movie, the development of the region - these are all projects.

Compare this interpretation with the previous one. recently we have: project - a documented plan of a structure or structure. You need to know that the term “design” is used to denote this concept in the West.

In a number of industries - such as the aerospace or defense industry - the objects created are so complex that work on them is carried out not as part of projects, but as part of Programs, which can be defined as a set of projects or a project characterized by a particular complexity of products and/or methods of managing its implementation. With this approach, the term "project" is usually associated with relatively short-term goals.

At present, a number of development programs have been developed and are being implemented in the Russian Federation: fuel and energy, food, transport and communications, housing, mechanical engineering and some others.

AT number of priority federal programs included programs for energy supply, electrification and gasification of rural areas, improving the safety of nuclear energy, using non-traditional energy sources, developing gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula, and developing the Kansk-Achinsk fuel and energy complex.

Conceptually important is the concept of a system, which can be defined as follows: System is a group of elements (including both people and technical elements)) organized in such a way that they are able to act as a whole in order to achieve their goals (Fig. 1.1.3). Examples of such systems include Aeroflot Company, Satellite TV System, etc. Accordingly, programs are subsystems of the first level (it is easy to give examples of Aeroflot programs, etc.), and projects are part of programs.

A bit about the history of project management

Any project goes through a series of phases (stages, stages), which we will talk about later. The relationship of phases, functions and project management subsystems is shown in fig. 2.1.1. (ch. 2, p. 2.1.).

Of course, in order to lead the project through all phases (stages, stages), it needs to be managed somehow. In this sense, they already managed such famous projects as the construction of the Egyptian pyramids or the Great Wall of China. Managed - and not without success (if you evaluate success only by the timeliness of completion or by technical results) - projects in the defense, fuel and energy and some other industries of the former Soviet Union.

Rice. 1.1.3. Hierarchy of systems

The need for an independent discipline "Project Management" (Project Management) was recognized in the developed countries of the West with a market economy in the 50s. 20th century This was due to a massive increase in the scale of projects and the fact that the concept of project success began to be measured, first of all, by the correspondence of its final cost to the amount of allocated allocations, the amount of savings and the size of profits. The latter, in turn, depended on the complexity (consistency) of solving a set of tasks that together constitute the subject of management (Fig. 1.1.4).

Among the first methods of project management in the late 50s. network planning and management methods (CPM and PERT methods) were developed. They were first used to control the Atlas rocket program and in the construction of a large synthetic fiber plant. In the mid 60s. these methods began to be actively studied and, to a lesser extent, introduced into the practice of capital construction in the USSR.

Rice. 1.1.4. Typical situation with the degree of solution of key management tasks

It should be noted here that in the late 1930s Soviet scientists developed the theoretical foundations and practical methods for scheduling and line construction using Gantt charts and the so-called. cyclograms, which in many respects can be considered the foundation of the project management apparatus created later.

In the 70s. A large number of large companies in the West, in response to the growing scale and complexity of their activities in a highly competitive environment, began to develop and use project management methods. The acceleration of this process was facilitated by the widespread introduction of computer systems for processing information (Table 1.1.1).

Concept and types of projects

The concept of "project" combines a variety of activities, characterized by a number of common features, the main ones are as follows:

Focus on achieving specific goals, specific results;

Coordinated execution of numerous interrelated activities;

Limited duration in time with a definite beginning and end.

The difference between a project and a production system is that a project is a one-time, non-cyclical activity. Serial production, on the other hand, does not have a predetermined end in time and depends only on the presence and magnitude of demand. Production cycles in their pure form are not projects, but recently the project approach is increasingly being applied to processes focused on continuous production (for example, projects to increase production to a specified level within a certain period based on a given budget or the execution of certain orders that have contractual delivery time). The project as a system of activities exists exactly as long as it takes to obtain the final result.

From the point of view of a systematic approach, the project can be considered as a process of transition from the initial state to the final one - the result, with the participation of a number of restrictions and mechanisms (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. System approach in project management

Project activity is usually initiated by a certain need that requires a whole range of interrelated actions to satisfy it. This set of actions aimed at obtaining the desired result is the project, the purpose of which is to eliminate the need. To implement a project, an organization needs various resources, such as: people, tools and equipment, information, managerial experience, technology, etc. Any project also has limitations that create conditions for implementation and affect the final result. These are: regulatory, ethical, financial, logistical, time and other restrictions, as well as the required level of quality in solving the problem, and other indirect impacts.

So, in the modern sense, projects are what change our world: the construction of a residential building or an industrial facility, a research program, the reconstruction of an enterprise, the creation of a new organization, the development of new equipment and technology, the creation of a movie, the development of a region - these are all projects . In English practice, the term “design” is used to define a project.

Due to the fact that project management methods largely depend on their specifics, we will consider the main types of so-called special projects, in which one of the listed factors plays a dominant role and requires special attention. The classification of project types (Table 1.1) according to various criteria allows participants to select the necessary management methods and control procedures.

Table 1.1. Classification of project types

In a number of industries, such as the aerospace or defense industry, the objects being created are so complex that work on them is carried out not as part of projects, but as part of programs that can be defined as a set of projects or as a project that is characterized by the particular complexity of the products being created and /or methods of managing its implementation. With this approach, the term “project” is usually associated with relatively short-term goals.

Small projects are small in scale, simple and limited in scope. So, in American practice, signs of small projects:

Capital investments - up to 10-15 million dollars;

Labor costs - up to 40-50 thousand man-hours.

Examples of typical small projects: pilot plants, small (often block-modular) industrial enterprises, modernization of existing industries.

Small projects allow a number of simplifications in the design and implementation procedure, the formation of a project team (you can simply redistribute intellectual, labor and material resources for a short time). At the same time, the difficulty of correcting the mistakes made due to the lack of time to eliminate them requires a very careful definition of the volumetric characteristics of the project, its participants and their methods of work, the project schedule and report forms, as well as the terms of the contract.

More on the topic 1.1 Synopsis:

1. Alpatova O.V. Vikova psychology: Lecture notes. 2007, 2007

The concept of "project" combines various types of activities, the most characteristic of which are the following features:

» focus on achieving specific goals or specific results;

» coordination of the implementation of interrelated actions;

» limited time.

The difference between a project and a production system is that a project is a one-time rather than a cyclical activity. Serial production, for example, does not have a predetermined end in time and depends only on the presence and magnitude of demand. When demand disappears, the production cycle ends.

The project as a system of activities ends when the goal is achieved or the final result is obtained. The concept of the project, however, does not contradict the concept of the firm or enterprise and is fully compatible with it. For example, a project to increase output with given financial resources. As practice shows, the project often becomes the main form of activity of the company in modern conditions.

There are a number of definitions of the term "project", each of which has the right to exist.

Here are some of them.

1. In the most general form project(English project) is “something that is conceived or planned, for example, a large enterprise” (Webster Dictionary).

2. Definition given by PMI:

a project (projekt, from the Latin for “throw ahead”) is a temporary undertaking with the goal of creating a unique product, service or achievement of a specific result. This is a process consisting of a set of interrelated controlled activities aimed at achieving a set goal under given time and resource constraints.

3. From the point of view of a systematic approach, a project is a process of transition from the initial state - an idea, to the final state - the result, with the participation of a number of restrictions and mechanisms (Fig. 1.1.1).

Rice. 1.1.1. The project as a process of transition of the system from the initial state to the final one

The project includes an idea (problem), means of its implementation (problem solving) and results obtained in the process of implementation (Fig. 1.1.2).

Rice. 1.1.2. Main elements of the project

Investment project is understood as an investment action that provides for the investment of a certain amount of resources, including intellectual, financial, material, human, in order to obtain the planned result and achieve certain goals within the stipulated time. The financial result of an investment project is most often profit / income, the tangible result is new or reconstructed fixed assets (objects) or the acquisition and use of financial instruments or intangible assets with subsequent receipt of income.

In the event that some physical objects (buildings, structures, industrial complexes) act as the results of the project implementation, the definition of the project can be specified as follows: Project is a purposeful, pre-designed and planned creation or modernization of physical objects, technological processes, technical and organizational documentation for them, material, financial, labor and other resources, as well as management decisions and measures for their implementation.

So, in the modern sense, projects are what change our world: the construction of a residential building or an industrial facility, a research program, the reconstruction of an enterprise, the creation of a new organization, the development of new equipment and technology, the construction of a ship, the creation of a movie, a program for the development of the region, are all projects.

In a number of industries - such as the aerospace or defense industry - the objects being created are so complex that work on them is carried out not as part of projects, but as part of Programs, which can be defined as a set of projects or a project characterized by the particular complexity of the products created and / or methods of managing its implementation.

To coordinate the activities of the company and determine the workload of its individual structures, it is required to clearly define who, when and what will be busy and when will be released.

The theory of project management is based on the rule that the whole project can be broken down into sufficiently small intermediate tasks that have an ultimate goal, which are manageable and can be easily described. For such work, it is easy to determine the amount of resources required, as well as the time required for their implementation. Thus, by dividing a large project into small intermediate tasks, one can, firstly, imagine a sequence of actions in which the project task will be solved and the goal achieved. Secondly, to calculate how many resources will be required for the whole complex of works. Theoretically, but not practically, this can be done by simple summation.

However, it is clear that if some processes within the project can be run in parallel, then this saves time. However, not all processes can be "parallelized". The whole complexity of solving this problem is that 1 + 1 does not always equal two when it comes to work carried out in a project in parallel or sequentially, and the amount can change from a change in the places of terms in projects.

For example, if three workers need to build a fence and paint it, then for this the workers (first and second) must cut the boards, put together and put up the fence, and the third worker must then paint the fence. If we want to optimize their work schedule, we can assume that the third worker can quickly paint the boards, while the other two will saw them. But such "optimization" will not help anyone, moreover, it can only complicate the task, because the boards must still dry out after painting. In the same way, if at the first stage a worker digs a hole, then puts a post in the hole, then fills the hole, this does not mean that three workers are needed to complete these works.

It is obvious that the worker can be alone. Or a third example: let two workers dig a hole half a meter wide, long and deep in 30 minutes. How much will it take 20 workers to dig the same hole? If you believe the arithmetic - in 3 minutes. But we understand that 20 workers cannot dig such a small hole at the same time. So in this case the answer is they will do it in the same 30 minutes. Project management theory describes a lot of reasons behind such failures. In particular, works cannot be completed if insufficient resources are allocated to them. For example, in the first case (fence construction) it may be a lack of paint, boards, lack of workers at the workplace, or simply the absence of a saw. Also, the project cannot be completed successfully if the time frame for its completion is set incorrectly (that is, if 20 workers were asked to dig a hole in 3 minutes). And one of the most difficult is the mistake of formulating goals, when the project "successfully" develops until it becomes clear that the time or money resource allocated for the project has been spent, but the intended goals to which the project was supposed to lead have not been achieved.
So, when planning a project, in general, it is customary to adhere to three principles: the project must be completed on time, it must be invested in the planned budget, and its result must correspond to its goals. After all, a project is a way to achieve certain goals.

Therefore, project management practices should help:

» define the goals of the project and conduct its justification;

» identify the structure of the project (subgoals, main stages of work to be completed);

» determine the necessary volumes and sources of financing;

» to select performers - in particular, through the procedures of tenders and competitions;

» prepare and conclude contracts;

» determine the timing of the project, draw up a schedule for its implementation, calculate the necessary resources;

» plan and consider risks;

» provide control over the progress of the project and much more.

Let's give a definition (the most general, but not the only one) of the essence of project management:

Project management- methodology (they also say - art) of organization, planning, management, coordination of labor, financial and material and technical resources throughout the project cycle, aimed at effectively achieving its goals through the use of modern methods, techniques and management technologies to achieve the results defined in the project for composition and scope of work, cost, time, quality and satisfaction of project participants.

Therefore, in order for the results to meet or even exceed the expectations of the project participants, a constant balancing of the following competitive requirements is required:

· requirements of the project content and development time, cost and quality of the project;

the requirements of the project participants with their requests and expectations;

Certain requirements (needs) and uncertain requirements (expectations).

It should be noted that, in fact, the project deals with two interrelated, but different categories of content: product and project. The content of the product is the totality of all characteristics of the result of the project (product, service). The content of the project is understood as the composition of the design work necessary to create the result (equipment, technology, etc.). The product is the area of ​​special attention of the customer of the project, while the design work is the area of ​​attention of the project team. Although these two different types of content can be discussed separately, in fact they cannot be separated from each other. Nobody needs project management without a product, and the product itself cannot be produced without some kind of project management.

Considering these two types of content separately is important for the following reasons:

· measurements of success are different for each type;

A change in one almost always leads to a change in the other, but not always in proportion;

· The tools and methods used to manage them are different.

Let's consider each of these reasons in more detail.

Measuring success.

To determine whether a product (product content) has actually been produced successfully, we only need to verify that it meets the specified parameters. We can organize some monitoring some time after the completion of the project to make sure that the result obtained satisfies the user's requirements.

To determine that our work (project scope) was successful, it is necessary to find out whether our work was completed on time and within the allocated budget.

Changes.

As already noted, a change in product content almost always leads to a change in design, but not always proportionally. Let's consider a simple example. According to the requirements of the project, we need to paint the room blue. Later, the customer of the project changes the requirement and wants to paint it red with the same brand of paint. Has this changed the content of the product? Absolutely - the characteristics of the product will be changed. Has the content of the project changed? It all depends on when these changes arrived.

If you bought paint, you need to change it or even pay extra when you exchange it. It is necessary to make some minor changes to the project and to the report. In this case, we have a global change in the composition of the product - a new color scheme! - which produces a slight change in the project. But what happens if you have already painted half the room by the time you make the change? And if at the same time the requirements for the composition of the dye have changed? (ordinary oil paint to chemically more resistant). This will entail more significant changes in the project (removal of the first layer, change in technology and application tools). Even more significant problems will arise when introducing changes if you are developing complex technology or organizational structures.

Understanding the difference between product scope and project scope will make the process of identifying, assessing, and managing inevitable changes much easier for developers and customers.

Tools and methods.

The tools and methods used to get one kind of product (product content) are different from the tools and methods needed to get another kind (building a house and building an airplane). These tools are said to be product-oriented methods.

At the same time, the tools and methods used to create a project plan tend to be similar from project to project. They are project management oriented and are used to describe and organize the work of a project. For example, the process for estimating costs is largely the same, whether you are estimating efforts to create a project to build a detached house or a bridge across the Volga.

Therefore, the scope of the product is characterized by product-oriented processes aimed at determining the specifications and production of the product, and the scope of the project is described by the project management processes aimed at describing and organizing the work of the project - budgeting, scheduling, etc.

At the level of product-oriented processes, the sectoral specificity of projects is manifested. Project management processes are universal for all industries. It is the universality of these processes that made it possible to form a body of knowledge on project management and other actions to establish a professional field of knowledge in this field of activity.

Basic options for project management schemes

There are the following options for project management schemes:

"Main" system. The head (manager) of the project - the representative ("agent") of the customer, does not bear financial responsibility for the decisions made. It can be any legal or natural person - a participant in the project, who has a license for professional management. In this case, the project manager ensures the coordination and management of the development and implementation of the project, and is not in contractual relations with other project participants (except for the customer).

The advantage of the system is the objectivity of the project manager, the disadvantage is that the responsibility for the results of the project rests entirely with the customer.

"Advanced Control" system. Project manager (manager) - takes responsibility for the project within a fixed (estimated) price. The manager ensures the management and coordination of the project processes according to the agreements between him, the customer and the project participants. As in the "main" system, it can be any legal or natural person - a project participant, who has a license for professional management and is able to meet his obligations to the customer. The project manager manages the project, coordinates deliveries and engineering work. In this case, the responsibility lies with the project manager within the terms of the contract.

Turnkey system. Project manager (manager) - a design firm with which the customer concludes a turnkey contract with the declared cost and project deadline.

Similar information.

Project

What is a project? We all carry out projects all the time in our daily lives. Here are simple examples: preparing for an anniversary, renovating an apartment, doing research, writing a book... All these activities have a number of common features that make them projects:

1. they are aimed at achieving specific goals;
2. they include the coordinated execution of interrelated activities;
3. they have a limited extent in time, with a definite beginning and end;
4. All of them are in some way inimitable and unique.

In general, it is these four characteristics that distinguish projects from other activities. Each of these characteristics has an important inner meaning, and therefore we will consider them more closely.

Focus on achieving goals.

Projects are aimed at obtaining certain results - in other words, they are aimed at achieving goals. These goals are the driving force of the project, and all planning and implementation efforts are made to ensure that these goals are achieved. The project usually involves a whole range of interrelated goals. For example, the main goal of a computer software project may be the development of an enterprise management information system. Intermediate goals (subgoals) can be the development of a database, the development of mathematical and software, system testing. In database development, in turn, lower-level goals can also be distinguished - the development of the logical structure of the database, the implementation of the database using the DBMS, data loading, and so on.

The fact that projects are goal oriented makes a lot of sense in managing them. First of all, he suggests that an important feature of project management is the precise definition and formulation of goals, starting from the highest level, and then gradually descending to the most detailed goals and objectives. It also follows that the project can be seen as the pursuit of carefully chosen goals, and that moving the project forward is associated with the achievement of higher and higher levels of goals until the final goal is finally reached.

Coordinated execution of interrelated activities.

Projects are inherently complex. They involve performing numerous interrelated activities. In some cases, these relationships are quite obvious (for example, technological dependencies), in other cases they are of a more subtle nature. Some intermediate tasks cannot be implemented until other tasks are completed; some jobs can only run in parallel, and so on. If the synchronization of the execution of different tasks is broken, the entire project can be compromised. If you think a little about this characteristic of the project, it becomes obvious that the project is a system, that is, a whole, consisting of interconnected parts, and the system is dynamic, and, therefore, requires special approaches to management.

limited time span.

Projects are completed over a finite period of time. They are temporary. They have a more or less clearly defined beginning and end. The project ends when its main goals are achieved. Much of the effort involved in working with a project is directed specifically at ensuring that the project is completed on time. For this, graphs are prepared showing the start and end times of the tasks included in the project.

The difference between a project and a production system is that a project is a one-time, non-cyclical activity. Serial production, on the other hand, does not have a predetermined end in time and depends only on the presence and magnitude of demand. When demand disappears, the production cycle ends. Production cycles in their pure form are not projects. However, in recent years, the design approach has been increasingly applied to processes focused on continuous production. For example, projects to increase production to a specified level within a certain period, based on a given budget, or the fulfillment of certain orders that have a contractual delivery time.

The project as a system of activity exists exactly as long as it takes to obtain the final result. The concept of the project, however, does not contradict the concept of the firm or enterprise and is fully compatible with it. On the contrary, the project often becomes the main form of activity of the firm.

Uniqueness.

Projects are, to a certain extent, unique and one-time events. However, the degree of uniqueness can vary greatly from one project to another. If you are engaged in the construction of cottages and are building the twentieth cottage of the same type, the degree of uniqueness of your project is quite small. The basic elements of this house are identical to those of the previous nineteen that you have already built. The main sources of uniqueness, however, can be found in the specifics of a particular production situation - in the location of the house and the surrounding landscape, in the specifics of the supply of materials and components, in new subcontractors.

On the other hand, if you are developing a unique device or technology, you are certainly dealing with a very unique task. You are doing something that has never been done before. And since past experience in this case can only give you limited clues about what to expect on a project, it is full of risk and uncertainty.

Project management

Lerman's well-known law states: "Any technical problem can be overcome with enough time and money," and Lerman's corollary elaborates: "You will never have enough time or money." It was to overcome the problem formulated in Lerman's investigation that the methodology for managing activities based on the project was developed. And the spread of this management technique to various areas of activity is additional proof of its effectiveness. If you ask a manager to describe how he understands his main task in the implementation of the project, then most likely he will answer: "Ensure the work is done." This is indeed the main task of the leader. But if you ask the same question to a more experienced manager, you can hear a more complete definition of the main task of the project manager: "Ensure the completion of work on time, within the allocated funds, in accordance with the terms of reference." It is these three points: time, budget and quality of work that are under the constant attention of the project manager. They can also be called the main constraints imposed on the project. Project management refers to the activities aimed at implementing the project with the greatest possible efficiency under the given time constraints, money (and resources), as well as the quality of the project's final results (documented, for example, in the terms of reference).

In the 30+ years that project management technology has been in use, a number of methodologies and tools have been developed to help project managers manage these constraints.

In order to cope with time constraints, methods are used to build and control work schedules. To manage monetary constraints, methods are used to form the financial plan (budget) of the project and, as work progresses, compliance with the budget is monitored in order to prevent costs from getting out of control. To perform work, their resource support is required and there are special methods for managing human and material resources (for example, a responsibility matrix, resource load diagrams).

Of the three main constraints, it is the most difficult to control the constraints on the intended outcomes of the project. The problem is that assignments are often difficult to both formulate and control. To solve these problems, in particular, methods of quality management are used.

So, project managers are responsible for three aspects of project implementation: timing, costs and quality of the result. In accordance with the generally accepted principle of project management, it is believed that effective time management is the key to success in all three indicators. Project time constraints are often the most critical. Where project deadlines are seriously delayed, cost overruns and substandard performance are very likely to result. Therefore, in most project management methods, the main emphasis is on scheduling work and monitoring compliance with the schedule.

A bit of history...

Project management methods are based on network planning techniques developed in the late 1950s in the United States. In 1956, M. Walker of DuPont, exploring ways to make better use of the Univac computer, joined forces with D. Kelly of Remington Rand's Capital Planning Group. They tried to use a computer to draw up scheduling plans for major projects to modernize DuPont factories. As a result, a rational and simple method for describing a project using a computer was created. It was originally called the Walker-Kelly method, and later was called the Critical Path Method - MCP (or CPM - Critical Path Method).

In parallel and independently, the US Navy created the PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) method for analyzing and evaluating programs. This method was developed by Lockheed Corporation and the consulting firm Booz, Allen & Hamilton for the implementation of the Polaris missile system project, involving about 3800 major contractors and consisting of 60 thousand operations. Using the PERT method allowed the program management to know exactly what needed to be done at any given time and who exactly should do it, as well as the likelihood of individual operations being completed on time. The management of the program was so successful that the project was completed two years ahead of schedule. With such a successful start, this method of management was soon used for project planning throughout the US military. The technique has proven itself well in coordinating the work performed by various contractors as part of large projects to develop new types of weapons.

Large industrial corporations began to apply a similar management technique almost simultaneously with the military to develop new types of products and modernize production. The method of work planning based on the project has been widely used in construction. For example, to manage a hydroelectric project on the Churchill River in Newfoundland (Labrador Peninsula). The cost of the project was 950 million dollars. The hydroelectric power plant was built from 1967 to 1976. This project included more than 100 construction contracts, some of which cost as much as $76 million. In 1974, the progress of the project was 18 months ahead of schedule and within the planned cost estimates. The customer for the project was Churchill Falls Labrador Corp., which hired Acress Canadian Betchel to develop the project and manage construction.

In essence, a significant gain in time was formed from the use of accurate mathematical methods in the management of complex work packages, which became possible due to the development of computer technology. However, the first computers were expensive and available only to large organizations. Thus, historically, the first projects were state programs that were grandiose in terms of the scale of work, the number of performers and capital investments.

Initially, large companies developed software to support their own projects, but soon the first project management systems appeared on the software market. The systems at the origin of planning were designed for powerful mainframe computers and networks of minicomputers.

The main indicators of systems of this class were their high power and, at the same time, the ability to describe projects in sufficient detail using complex network planning methods. These systems were aimed at highly professional managers managing the development of the largest projects, who are well acquainted with network planning algorithms and specific terminology. As a rule, project development and project management consultations were carried out by special consulting firms.

The stage of the most rapid development of project management systems began with the advent of personal computers, when the computer became a working tool for a wide range of managers. A significant expansion of the range of users of management systems has created a need to create systems for project management of a new type, one of the most important indicators of such systems was ease of use. Management systems of the new generation were developed as a project management tool that is understandable to any manager, does not require special training and provides easy and quick start-up. Time Line belongs to this class of systems. The developers of new versions of systems of this class, trying to preserve the external simplicity of the systems, invariably expanded their functionality and power, and at the same time kept low prices, which made the systems affordable for companies of almost any level.

At present, the United States has already developed a deep tradition of using project management systems in many areas of life. Moreover, the bulk of the planned projects are small projects. For example, research conducted by InfoWorld weekly showed that fifty percent of US users require systems that can support schedules of 500 to 1,000 jobs, and only 28 percent of users develop schedules containing more than 1,000 jobs. In terms of resources, 38 percent of users have to manage 50 to 100 resources in a project, and only 28 percent of users need to manage more than 100 resources. As a result of the research, the average sizes of project schedules were also determined: for small projects - 81 jobs and 14 types of resources, for medium projects - 417 jobs and 47 types of resources, for large projects - 1,198 jobs and 165 types of resources. These figures can serve as a starting point for a manager considering the usefulness of moving to a project-based form of managing the activities of his own organization. As you can see, the application of a project management system in practice can be effective for very small projects.

Naturally, with the expansion of the circle of users of project management systems, there is an expansion of methods and techniques for their use. Western computer magazines regularly publish articles on project management systems, including advice to users of such systems and analysis of the use of network planning techniques to solve problems in various areas of management.

Project life cycle.

Any project goes through certain phases in its development. The stages of the project life cycle may differ depending on the field of activity and the adopted work organization system. However, each project can be divided into the initial (pre-investment) stage, the stage of project implementation and the stage of completion of the project. It may seem obvious, but the concept of the project life cycle is one of the most important for the manager, since it is the current stage that determines the tasks and activities of the manager, the methods and tools used.

Project managers break down the project life cycle into stages in a variety of ways. For example, in software development projects, such stages as awareness of the need for an information system, formulation of requirements, system design, coding, testing, and operational support are often distinguished. However, the most traditional is to break down a project into four major phases: project formulation, planning, implementation, and completion.

Project Formulation essentially implies a project selection function. Projects are initiated as needs arise that need to be met. However, in conditions of scarcity of resources, it is impossible to satisfy all needs without exception. You have to make a choice. Some projects are selected, others are rejected. Decisions are made based on the availability of resources, and primarily financial capabilities, the relative importance of meeting some needs and ignoring others, and the relative effectiveness of projects. Decisions on the selection of projects for implementation are all the more important the larger the project is envisaged, since large projects determine the direction of activities for the future (sometimes for years) and bind the available financial and human resources.

The defining indicator here is the opportunity cost of investments. In other words, by choosing project "A" rather than project "B", the organization refuses the benefits that project "B" could bring.

For a comparative analysis of projects at this stage, methods of project analysis are used, including financial, economic, commercial, organizational, environmental, risk analysis and other types of project analysis. Systems for planning and managing projects at this stage are usually used in a limited way, therefore, we will not dwell on these methods in more detail in this book.

Planning. Planning in one form or another is carried out during the entire period of the project. Early in the life cycle of a project, an informal preliminary plan is usually developed - a rough idea of ​​what will need to be done if the project is to be implemented. The decision to select a project is largely based on preliminary plan evaluations. Formal and detailed project planning begins after the decision to implement it is made. Key points (milestones) of the project are determined, tasks (works) and their mutual dependence are formulated. It is at this stage that project management systems are used, providing the project manager with a set of tools for developing a formal plan: tools for building a hierarchical structure of work, network graphs and Gantt charts, assignment tools and resource load histograms.

As a rule, the project plan does not remain unchanged, and as the project progresses, it is subject to constant adjustments taking into account the current situation.

Implementation. After the approval of the formal plan, the manager has the task of implementing it. As the project progresses, managers must constantly monitor the progress of work. Control consists in collecting actual data on the progress of work and comparing them with the planned ones. Unfortunately, in project management, you can be absolutely sure that deviations between planned and actual indicators always happen. Therefore, the task of the manager is to analyze the possible impact of deviations in the scope of work performed on the progress of the project as a whole and in the development of appropriate management decisions. For example, if the schedule is behind schedule beyond an acceptable level of variance, a decision may be made to speed up certain critical tasks by allocating more resources to them.

Completion. Sooner or later, but projects come to an end. The project ends when the goals set for it are achieved. Sometimes the end of a project is sudden and premature, as when a decision is made to terminate the project before it is completed on schedule. Be that as it may, but when the project ends, its leader must perform a series of activities that complete the project. The specific nature of these responsibilities depends on the nature of the project itself. If equipment was used in the project, it should be inventoried and possibly transferred for a new use. In the case of contract projects, it is necessary to determine whether the results satisfy the conditions of the contract or contract. It may be necessary to produce final reports, and organize interim project reports in the form of an archive.