Clarity of language depends on. Communicative qualities of speech (qualities of good speech). Stylistic assessment of dialectisms, jargons

The characteristics of speech, established on the basis of its correlation with the capabilities of perception... is one of the communicative qualities of speech. Speech that is easily understood by the recipient is called clear. In the area of vocabulary, text containing unfamiliar vocabulary, especially terms, may be unclear to the recipient. The use of dialectisms, jargon, phraseology, obsolete and new words can also lead to confusion. To understand them, it is necessary to clarify the meaning of words, including using translation and visual semantization. In language classes, such explanations either precede work on the text, or are given during the process of reading or listening to the text. The unclearness of speech is usually caused by its verbosity, excessive syntactic complexity, etc. This especially often occurs in conditions of oral communication, where it is difficult in terms of language. are complex phrases, sentences with several types of complications, complex syntactic structures with composition and subordination.

Relevance as a quality of good speech requires such a selection and organization of language means that make the speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, and the composition of the audience.

Relevance is distinguished: stylistic, contextual, personal and psychological.

Stylistic appropriateness is manifested in the ability to take into account the specifics, patterns of selection and use of linguistic material in accordance with the style used to create the text - business, scientific, artistic, journalistic, colloquial. Thus, colloquial speech is characterized by incomplete syntactic constructions (“Where is the institute? How to get there?”). Transferring them to written speech styles is inappropriate.

The relevance of a particular linguistic unit is also regulated by the context, that is, the speech environment. Context regulates the use or rejection of a particular element in a specific linguistic situation.

The most typical manifestation of personal and psychological inappropriateness is rudeness. A harsh word, a caustic remark, metallic intonations in the voice and categorical judgments cause severe mental trauma to the people around us. Tactfulness and delicacy in the choice of means of communication, soft and friendly intonations preserve health and help to overcome the difficulties that inevitably occur in the life of every person.

Speaking about the Purity of the teacher’s speech, it should be noted such shortcomings and errors as: 1) “extra” words like: so, so to speak, well, that means some others, for example: Today we must, so to speak, find out how they differ , so to speak, conjunctions from prepositions. To do this, we will use comparison to ultimately draw a conclusion, so to speak...; 2) expressions that can be qualified as colloquial and professional jargon, for example: You worked well from your place (the words from your place do not go together); You didn't give an example (you didn't give one instead).

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also his feelings and imagination.

The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - strictly linguistic and extralinguistic.

One of the main conditions for expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which presupposes a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, and deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing and effective. If the author does not properly think through the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.

To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, and concern for its content gives speech (especially oral) an emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot influence the feelings of the addressee.

In addition to deep knowledge of the subject of the message, expressive speech also presupposes the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee and arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of linguistic means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.

One of the prerequisites for verbal expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily select the language means needed in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed through systematic and deliberate training. The means of training speech skills is careful reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attention to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness ).

The verbal expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author’s target setting for it.

Clarity speech - clarity, accessibility, unambiguity. This quality reflects the connection between speech and thinking. One of the main requirements of a lawyer’s speech culture is clarity. It is important both in written speech, when perceiving which readers have the opportunity to return to a difficult fragment of text and comprehend the content, and in oral speech, since the addressee’s further actions depend on the correct understanding of the author’s intention. In order for the reader or listener to adequately perceive the proposed text, its author is initially obliged to create his work taking into account clarity, simplicity, and unambiguity.

To ensure clarity of speech, primarily extra-linguistic conditions are important:

1) knowledge of the subject of speech: the use of specific information within the text, possession of information on the topic in a broad background sense;
2) logical thinking, logical presentation of material;
3) taking into account the social status of the addressee of the speech: age, level of education, profession, outlook;
4) the author’s desire to make the text accessible to others.

Clarity is also created by linguistic conditions, namely the connection with other communicative qualities:

1) correctness of speech: normative speech is understandable;
2) consistency of speech: consistent and consistent speech is clear;
3) accuracy of speech: when using the exact meanings of words, the meaning of the statement is obvious;
4) appropriateness of speech: speech, taking into account the communication situation, is accessible and takes into account the capabilities of the addressee (for details, see § 2.8).

To facilitate understanding of clear and precise legal text, it is recommended to use the following techniques:

1) explanation of uncommon terms, foreign words, legal clichés: legal - lawful, electorate - people, expectations - expectations, improper provision of services - performance of services in violation of deadlines and (or) with shortcomings;
2) replacing or accompanying abstract book words with specific vocabulary: housing stock - houses, profit - money, real estate - land;
3) addition of generic concepts to specific ones: legal documents- laws, charters, regulations, subjects of law - individuals, legal entities;
4) repetition of the most important thoughts several times, but without verbatim repetitions, using cognates, comparison, contrast, detailing: pledge, pledgee, pledged property", purchase and sale agreement, buyer - seller, purchase; lender - borrower, lending, loan terms;
5) the use of introductory words of a logical nature for communication in complex syntax of the text: firstly, secondly, so, thus"
6) summarizing the provisions of the speech in the conclusion of the text: let's summarize..., thus, obviously..., in conclusion of my speech I will say...:,
7) the use of means of expressiveness, namely emotional and evaluative vocabulary, phraseological units, tropes and figures of speech, to attract the attention of the addressee and an unexpected vivid explanation: a repentant criminal, the seal of the law in the hands of the judge, the fire of justice flaring up in the speech of the prosecutor.

To facilitate the perception of oral speech, it is advisable to add the following to these techniques:

1) highlighting the main thing with intonation, pauses, special words: this is important, I will emphasize, pay attention, note, highlight,”
2) simplification of syntax during oral presentation of the primary written text: reducing the volume of sentences to 7-9 words", dividing complex sentences into several simple ones", replacing participial and participial phrases with synonymous constructions",
3) the use of dialogization techniques in the monologue speech of the author of the text or speaker to retain the attention of the addressee: rhetorical questions and exclamations, rhetorical dialogues, personal pronoun “we” and possessive “our” in different cases and numbers, verbs in the 1st person form plural present or future tense.

With a general understanding of a legal text, certain fragments of it, from words to several sentences, may become unclear. This occurs when there is a logical failure in the development of thought, with an unnecessary set of foreign language insertions, confusion in the use of personal and possessive pronouns, with verbosity and weed words, and a violation of word order. These errors lead to illogical and unclean speech, which is difficult to understand. The ambiguity of the content of a legal document directly and indirectly affects the inability of such a document to be a true regulator of social relations or to achieve its goal.

Public and statesman M. M. Speransky in “Rules of Higher Eloquence” of the late 18th century. highlighted clarity as the most important quality: “The first property of a syllable... is clarity. Nothing can excuse a writer when he writes darkly. Nothing can give him the right to torment us with a difficult combination of concepts. Whatever syllable he writes, the god of good taste imposes on him the unapplicable law of being clear.”

Speech Accuracy

Clarity of expression of thought leads to such a quality of speech as accuracy. Accuracy is a characteristic of the content of speech based on the relationship between speech and reality (this is factual, objective accuracy), the relationship between speech and thinking is conceptual, semantic accuracy, which depends on how much the speaker follows the meaning of the words used. Conceptual accuracy is the search for the word or expression that best matches the author's intent.

In order to objectively analyze the evidence, and therefore achieve substantive accuracy, the court speaker cites the words of the defendant (victim). Speech inaccuracies caused by poor knowledge of the subject of speech cause a negative attitude of listeners towards the judicial speaker. Conceptual accuracy depends on precise word usage, in particular on the choice of synonyms. Precision is achieved by the use of legal terms and clichés: motives for the crime, not incentives; initiate a criminal case, but not start; apply preventive measures rather than accept, etc.

Violation of accuracy leads to the fact that ideas and concepts are distorted. Let's take this example: a candidate of legal sciences, arguing in a reputable legal journal about the polysemy of evaluative concepts in criminal procedure law, advocating for the accuracy of word usage, himself inaccurately uses the linguistic term: “etymological meaning” instead of lexical meaning.

A.A. warned about the danger of inaccurate use of words. Ushakov: “An inaccurate word in law is a great social evil: it creates the ground for arbitrariness and lawlessness.”

Aristotle pointed out clarity as the main advantage of speech: “The dignity of style lies in clarity; the proof of this is that since speech is not clear, it does not achieve its goal.” P. Sergeich wrote about the “extraordinary, exceptional” clarity at the trial: “... Do not speak so that the judge can understand you, but so that the judge cannot help but understand you.”

How is clarity achieved? First of all, deep knowledge of the material, clear composition of speech, logical presentation, persuasiveness of arguments. This quality characterized the speeches of many pre-revolutionary court speakers, who tried to make the presentation understandable.

Clarity (accessibility) is often called simplicity. Simplicity of presentation ensures that the speech is easily understood and the thought of the judges follows without difficulty the thought of the speaker. However, simplicity and primitiveness should not be confused. Simplicity of speech involves the use of both complex syntactic structures and rhetorical techniques. A timely and appropriate comparison, a vivid metaphor, a rhetorical question, a phraseological unit enliven the speech and make it more intelligible. Simplicity and clarity can only be achieved by persistent work on each speech.

Speech becomes unclear due to unclear knowledge of the case materials, due to low culture of thinking.

Quite often, speech becomes unclear due to the inappropriate use of foreign words and highly specialized terms.

Inappropriate use of pronouns will certainly lead to unclear speech. The reason for the ambiguity may be verbosity. Try, for example, immediately, after the first reading, to understand the meaning of Art. 65 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation or Art. 186 Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. Difficult. Because the ambiguity in this case is the result of incorrect word order.

The doctrine of the qualities of speech originates in the works of ancient philosophers and orators who developed a whole system of assessing the qualities of speech - positive and negative. For example, Theophrastus, in his book “On Style,” outlined such virtues of speech as purity, clarity, accuracy, majesty, severity, solemnity, swiftness, truthfulness, and power. Hermogenes listed the shortcomings of speech as confusion, pomposity, childishness, and false pathos. According to Cicero, purity and clarity of speech are important and necessary, but they are not enough for a speaker to arouse the admiration of listeners - for this, beauty of speech is needed. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the most important and perfect of the virtues of speech is appropriateness.

Of course, not all the positions of ancient thinkers can be accepted by us. But much deserves attention and deep study.

The modern doctrine of the communicative qualities of good speech was developed by Boris Nikolaevich Golovin. He distinguishes the qualities of speech based on the relationship of speech with other concepts:

Speech - language: correctness, richness, purity
Speech - thinking: logic, clarity, simplicity, brevity
Speech is the objective world: accuracy
Speech - its setting, content, purpose: relevance
Speech - aesthetics: imagery, expressiveness, euphony.

Correctness of speech is compliance in speech with the current norms of language:

Norms of pronunciation, stress, vocabulary, stylistics, morphology, word formation, syntax

Right- this is the main communicative quality of speech.

The correctness of speech is, as it were, determined by the language structure itself: it is enough to know this structure well in order to speak correctly. Therefore, the development of good speech skills should, first of all, be based on knowledge of the norms of the literary language.

Stress norms regulate the choice of options for placing a stressed syllable among unstressed ones.
Pronunciation norms regulate the rules for pronouncing sounds in each syllable of a single word.
Vocabulary norms regulate the rules for the use of words and their meanings, as well as the rules for the lexical compatibility of words.
Incorrect: “The Wild One’s speech is teeming with rude expressions.”
Correct: “The Wild’s speech is replete (or replete) with rude expressions.”
Stylistic norms regulate the choice of speech means in various spheres of communication and do not allow clashes of different style means in a narrow context. For example:
According to K.I. Chukovsky, one of the translators brought the following translation of a romantic fairy tale to the publishing house "World Literature": "For lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined." Gorky told him that clerical language “for lack of availability” is inappropriate in a romantic fairy tale. The old man agreed and wrote differently: “Due to the lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined,” which proved the complete unsuitability of romantic fairy tales for translation.
Speech styles reflect a person’s spiritual world, his erudition, knowledge, tastes and sympathies. Every educated person should work on his speech style.
Word formation norms regulate the choice of morphemes (word parts), their placement and combination as part of a new word.
Morphological norms regulate the choice of variants of the morphological form of a word.
For example, you cannot say: “pies with jam,” because the noun “jam” is not female, but average.
You can’t say: “one shoe is lost,” because... the noun "shoe" is feminine.
Syntax norms require compliance with the rules of agreement, control, arrangement of words in the structure of a sentence, and rules for constructing a complex sentence.
You can say: “When I drove up to this station and looked thoughtfully out the window, my hat flew off my head.”
You can’t build a sentence like this: “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off” (this is the entry of the official Yarmonkin in A.P. Chekhov’s book of complaints in his story).

Richness of speech

The richness of speech is the variety of linguistic means used: a large volume of active vocabulary, a variety of morphological forms and syntactic structures used.

The evaluative words “rich” and “poor” are used in relation to speech by philologists, writers, literary critics, and teachers. They proceed from speech experience that the artistic speech of, for example, Russian writers L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, A. Chekhov is rich, and in comparison with it the speech of the newspaper is, of course, poor.

Speech is considered rich if it is varied in its linguistic structure. A person must have a large vocabulary from which he can choose the right word and apply it in his speech.

The lexical richness of the Russian language is reflected in various linguistic dictionaries. For example, “Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language,” published in 1847, contains about 115 thousand words, “Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl includes more than 200 thousand words, D.N. Ushakov included in " Dictionary Russian language" about 90 thousand words.

The richness of the Russian language lies not only in large quantities words, but also in the variety of their meanings. New semantic shades give the language flexibility, liveliness and expressiveness. There are many different homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, and paronyms in our language, which make our speech colorful, varied, help avoid repetition of the same words, and allow us to express thoughts figuratively. There are many words in the Russian language that convey the speaker’s positive or negative attitude towards the subject of thought, that is, they have expression. For example, the words bliss, luxurious, magnificent, fearless, charm contain positive expression, and the words chatterbox, klutz, stupidity, daub are characterized by negative expression.

Here is an example of expressive, emotional speech:

“Although Nilovna is only forty years old, she considers herself an old woman. She felt old, having not truly experienced either childhood or youth, without experiencing the joy of “recognizing” the world. Gorky paints her portrait of Nilovna in such a way that it is dominated by sad, gray tone: “She was tall, slightly stooped, her body, broken by long work and beatings from her husband, moved silently and somehow sideways... There was a deep scar above her right eyebrow... She was all soft, sad and submissive." Surprise and fear - that's what this woman's face constantly expressed. The sad image of a mother cannot leave us indifferent..."

But we take a collection of articles about best practices in agriculture from the bookshelf and read:

"The introduction of legumes into crop rotation, with which the activity of nodule bacteria is associated, as well as the creation of the necessary conditions for the better development of these plants are important events to accumulate nitrogen and provide it to subsequent crops. Thus, applying phosphate and potassium fertilizers to peas increases its yield and, therefore, contributes to greater accumulation of nitrogen."

This speech is devoid of liveliness, emotionality, devoid of living colors, such speech is boring and standard, built from cumbersome statements.

Don't impoverish your speech! Use all the riches of the Russian language!

Purity of speech

Purity of speech - elimination of non-literary, dialect, slang, colloquial, vulgar words from speech; as well as foreign words that are used unnecessarily. All this vocabulary gives the speech a rude, familiar character.

When choosing words when constructing a statement, we must take into account the scope of the word. Some words have a limited scope:

lexical new formations, outdated words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms, colloquial and vernacular words, clericalisms, speech cliches

Their use must always be motivated by the conditions of the context.

Logicality of speech

The logic of speech is a strictly consistent correspondence of the structure of speech to the laws of logic and thinking.

A person who wants to learn to speak and write logically must first learn to think logically. It is necessary to cultivate strict discipline of thought in oneself, to prevent logical errors and miscalculations in the thinking itself.

There is a distinction between objective logic and conceptual logic. Subject logic consists in the correspondence of semantic connections and relationships of linguistic units in speech with connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality. Conceptual logic is a reflection of the structure of logical thought. These two types of logic are closely interrelated and appear in unity in a specific speech. Logical conditions:

mastering the logic of reasoning - “the norms or principles of correct reasoning” in the search for new truth.

knowledge of linguistic means that organize correct and logical speech.

Conditions for logic at the utterance level:

A) The combination of one word with another must be consistent. Otherwise, logical errors (alogisms) may arise within the confines of a statement as a result of combining incompatible concepts.

Alogism is a type of logical (speech) error that consists of a violation of logical connections in the text, logical breaks, unsubstantiated, incorrect conclusions.

There are illogicalities in oral and written speech. We find examples of alogisms in the speeches of political figures: “My specialty and life took place in an atmosphere of oil and gas” (from Chernomyrdin’s speech).

Violation of logical connections between words and parts of a statement can lead to unintentional comedy. For example: “I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the doctor of the sanatorium-forest school. This man has an always smiling face and at the same time has a lot of experience.”

Incompatible concepts are combined into one row: attractive appearance and professional experience.

From point of view speech culture Hidden alogisms are dangerous: “A slide show was organized about the development of cities and culture in France.”

The row is not organized correctly homogeneous members: the intersecting concepts of “city” and “culture” are connected as single concepts by the union “and”.

B) An important condition for creating logical speech is the correct word order.

In the syntactic structure of a sentence, word order determines the relative position of the components of the phrase and general organization subject groups and predicate groups. Violation of the order of words leads to a violation of the logical sequence of presentation and to unclear semantic accents in it.

Here is an example of an unsuccessful word arrangement in a sentence: “I remind parents that children without vouchers are not accepted to all recreation centers.”

This sentence should be corrected as follows: put the circumstances of the place at the beginning and eliminate the word “all”: “Children without vouchers are not admitted to recreation centers.”

There are often alogisms (as a violation of subject logic) in students’ essays: “Dolokhov was promoted to soldier for his recklessness” (promoted to officer, but can later be demoted to soldier).

Analyzing the ideological content of the drama “The Thunderstorm,” schoolchildren write: “The old, dying passionately resists the new” (instead of desperately resisting).

About Pushkin's Tatyana they note: “She is contraindicated to Onegin and Lensky” (the right word was not found, contraindicated).

Clarity and simplicity of speech

Clarity of speech is achieved by using such linguistic means that help to understand the meaning of speech with the least effort of the listener or reader.

Clarity and intelligibility of speech depend largely on the correct use of various layers of the lexical composition of the language: terms, foreign words, dialectisms, professionalisms, historicisms, archaisms, neologisms. The use of words of limited scope must be motivated.

For example, when using new words, the speaker himself must know well the meaning of the words used and be able to explain their meaning. This will make the speech understandable.

Simplicity of speech is the absence of pretentious, pompous words in speech; it is naturalness, not artificiality of speech.

“Under the pomposity and unnaturalness of the phrase lies the emptiness of the content” (L. N. Tolstoy)

Striving to write and speak beautifully, but not knowing how to use the figurative and expressive means of language, some speakers and writers construct flowery phrases, litter their speech with linguistic cliches, cliché words (into the arena of struggle, runs like a red thread, line of display, raise to the proper level, etc. .). Epithets, comparisons, metaphors should not just externally decorate speech, but help convey the content of the statement more deeply and clearly. One must observe a sense of proportion in the use of figurative means of language, otherwise speech errors - amplifications - appear.

Amplification is a type of speech error, for example, in students’ essays, which consists of a pile-up of unnecessary “beauties,” images, tropes that are not necessary for a given essay and are not justified by the communicative task:

“In the novel, the unity of form and content appears with exceptional prominence.”

“Katerina is a pure, heavenly creature, a fragile flower that grew in the grave cold of Kabanikha’s house.”

"Pavel Vlasov is an eagle with a mighty wingspan, who brought a torch of happiness to people, opening their eyes to the world around them."

Banal “pretty”, pompous style is found in the press, for example: “The young milkmaid was possessed by an unquenchable desire to further increase the milk yield from her black-eyed beauty cow.”

Brevity of speech

Brevity of speech - elimination of unnecessary words, unnecessary repetitions, redundant constructions, verbosity.

Unnecessary repetitions and verbosity deprive speech of strength, expressiveness, and weaken the expression of thought. Anyone who strives to present briefly develops the ability to:

the ability to isolate the main thing;
the ability to focus on the situation when compressing text;
ability to shorten text.

If “brevity is the sister of talent” (A.P. Chekhov), then verbosity is the enemy of clarity.

Often there are combinations of words that are so close in the concept they express that some of these words become completely redundant.

For example: “meeting each other for the first time”, “we value every minute of time”, “come back in April”, “ten rubles of money”, “wrote my autobiography”, “step back two steps”, “memorable souvenirs”, “forward movement forward", "there was a vacancy" (a vacancy is a free, unfilled position). Linguists call this phenomenon pleonasm.

Speech Accuracy

Accuracy of speech (reliability) is the strict correspondence of words to the objects and phenomena of reality that they denote. Precision of words is not only a requirement of healthy taste, but above all a requirement of meaning (K. Fedin)

The history of the language has assigned every word special meaning or several values. Speech in which the use of words fully corresponds to their linguistic meanings can be called accurate.

Inaccurate speech may result from poor knowledge of the language or poor knowledge of the subject. For example, in the Russian literary language there are words that are united by similarity, proximity or identity of their meanings. Thus, the words bearded and bearded have a common root beard- and similar suffixes -at- and -ast-. These words are very similar in meaning. But can one be replaced by the other? However, there is still a slight difference in their meanings. In explanatory dictionaries it is noted: bearded - “having a beard,” and bearded means “having a large beard.” Therefore, these words cannot be interchanged.

Let's look at other examples:

“Our ideas must be the result of material life, and whoever builds his ideas without this basis could not give the right idea.”

The author of this statement hardly understood himself: after all, every word here is inaccurate. Hence the confused idea of the relationship of ideas to the conditions of the material life of society. Obviously, the author did not properly know what he was talking about.

“Here, finally, is the familiar street, lined with one-story houses and small houses; Peter walked along the dusty path for two blocks and bravely climbed onto the porch of the building in which he spent his childhood and the signs of which he memorized for the rest of his life!”

The word path is more abstract in meaning, broader than the word road, and does not correspond to the real picture depicted in this statement. The word courageously is inaccurate, because courage is manifested in moments of a person’s most serious trials, associated with overcoming very significant and dangerous obstacles. This word does not correspond to the facts of life. And one more thing: a building is very rarely called an ordinary one-story residential building, and memorization presupposes conscious, deliberate memorization, which does not happen with a person who, imperceptibly for himself, absorbs and retains the impressions of childhood.

Expressiveness of speech

Expressiveness of speech is a property of speech due to which, using means of expression, it is possible to awaken not only the logical, but also the emotional, aesthetic area of our consciousness.

Expressive speech affects our feelings more strongly than “mechanical”, monotonous speech.

This is the most difficult quality of speech to describe. Why?

Firstly, because each of us evaluates the expressiveness of the text from the position of his rhetorical ideal.

Secondly, because expressiveness is the most “situational” quality of speech: unlike other qualities, expressiveness depends on each parameter of the communication situation.

Thirdly, expressiveness has a “complex” relationship with other communicative qualities of speech: it can be enhanced due to the advantages of speech, or it can be achieved due to its shortcomings (if this corresponds to the intentions of the author of the speech).

Fourthly, the set and ratio of means of expression in different speech styles and genres differ significantly.

The degree of expressiveness and the means to achieve the desired effect depend not only on the individuality of the author and the characteristics of the addressee of the speech, but also on the communication situation, which dictates the choice of style and genre of utterance.

The expressiveness of an individual’s speech depends on several conditions:

Independence of thinking, the activity of creating the author of speech.

If you think only according to a cheat sheet, but feel according to a template and standard, do not be surprised that crib thinking and stereotyped feeling do not allow timid shoots of expressiveness to break through.

Often a lecturer, a journalist, or a teacher, or an administrative leader - all of them, caught in a web of indifference, speak “without a soul,” according to a template, according to a model, without wanting or being able to improve or change this model.

However, life wants to abandon indifference, wants inquisitiveness of thought and acuteness of feeling, and requires a search for expressiveness.

Good knowledge of the language and its expressive capabilities.

Good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles.

Systematic and conscious training of speech skills.

Knowledge must turn into skill. You should carefully read exemplary texts - fiction, scientific, journalistic and others. It is useful to listen to the speech of people who can speak expressively. You need to learn to control your speech, notice what is expressive in it, what is stereotyped and gray. The skill of self-control is necessary for any person if he wants to gradually improve his speech in general, and in particular its expressiveness.

It is necessary to psychologically tune yourself to expressiveness: “I will study the expressive means of our language (proverbs, sayings, metaphors, epithets, comparisons, hyperboles and litotes and others), master them, acquire the skills to use them in speech, learn to evaluate my speech - is it expressive? ? - I will learn to eliminate from speech everything that interferes with expressiveness."

You should learn speech skills from Russian writers, since in their speech you can find correctness, accuracy, logic, and expressiveness of thoughts:

“It was getting hot; white shaggy clouds quickly ran from the snowy mountains, promising a thunderstorm; Mashuk’s head was smoking like an extinguished torch; around him, gray wisps of clouds curled and crawled like snakes, detained in their flight and as if caught in his thorny bushes. The air was filled with electricity. I went deeper into the grape alley leading to the grotto; I was sad" (M.Yu. Lermontov)

“And the weather is magnificent. The air is calm, transparent and fresh. The night is dark, but you can see the whole village with its white roofs and streams of smoke coming from the chimneys, trees silvered with frost, snowdrifts. The whole sky is strewn with cheerfully blinking stars, and the Milky Way appears like this clearly, as if it had been washed and rubbed with snow before the holiday..." (A.P. Chekhov)

Probably in such cases it is customary to say that not a single word can be changed here: each one is applied precisely and definitely.

Appropriateness of speech

The relevance of speech is the correspondence of the content of speech, its linguistic means to the goals and conditions of communication.

Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, the composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational and aesthetic objectives of written or oral speech.

The appropriateness of speech covers different levels of language, and, in connection with this, appropriateness is distinguished:

style,
contextual,
situational,
personal-psychological

Style appropriateness consists of using a single word, phrase, syntactic structure in accordance with the goals of a particular style (scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial and artistic). For example, speech cliches and clerical expressions are characteristic of an official business style. They are not appropriate either in scientific style or in colloquial speech, and if they fall into these styles, they destroy the system and lead to speech errors.

The criterion of appropriateness is also violated in the case when, in artistic speech, the writer is carried away by technical terminology and cliches of business speech:

Victor understood that drilling itself gave the team much more benefits than pumping. The main money was spent on moldings, although less time was spent on drilling than on installing plumbing equipment. So it turned out that everything depended on the master’s conscience.

Victor wanted to offer his father a new drilling rig, received by SMU according to the order. The machine was fundamentally new; drilling was carried out using compressed air without clay washing fluid.

What is the need to introduce into artistic speech an abundance of technical, professional terms, the meaning of which is incomprehensible without special dictionaries and which do not perform any aesthetic function? They are functionally impractical here, and therefore inappropriate.

Contextual relevance- this is the appropriateness of using a word in context, taking into account the speech environment.

For example, colloquial speech is characterized by stereotypical constructions: “Where was the string bag?”, “Moscow station, how can I get through?”, “Talent is when you believe in yourself.” The use of such constructions outside of colloquial speech is a violation of modern grammatical norms.

However, in artistic style, in poetry, such constructions are found:
Sadness is when
The water will become fresh,
Apples are bitter
Tobacco smoke is like smoke.
(L. Martynov)

Relevance is situational- is the appropriateness of using speech means in certain speech situations.

Let's say, at a stop, instead of “Here is finally our bus,” is it appropriate to use encyclopedic information and construct the following phrase: “Here is finally our multi-seater car with a carriage-type body, with a speed of 60-100 km/h”?!

In such cases, appropriateness in certain speech systems, in speech situations, and in the style of the work of art as a whole should be considered.

Personal-psychological relevance- this is the appropriateness of the use of speech means by an individual in accordance with the culture of his thinking, with his sensitive, friendly and respectful attitude towards people, in accordance with his ideological position and conviction.

Speaking with an interlocutor, speaking in front of an audience, we not only convey information, but also, wittingly or unwittingly, convey our attitude to reality, to the people around us. Therefore, it is important to take care of how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will injure him with rudeness, or humiliate his dignity.

The appropriateness of speech is a very important quality in the social aspect, since it regulates all our speech behavior.

Ability to find the right words, intonation in a given communication situation is the key to a successful relationship between interlocutors, the occurrence of feedback, and the guarantee of people’s moral and even physical health.

For example, the words “thank you, please, excuse me” have hidden power over our mood. Everyone is pleased to receive signs of attention; many of us are ready to do a great job for a “thank you.” There are no such signs of attention - and the mood deteriorates, resentment arises.

The following letter came to the editor of one of the newspapers:

“Today I received a passport - it seems like a solemn day in my life, and I have tears of resentment in my eyes. It’s hard for me to write about this, but this day will be remembered for a long time, unfortunately, not from the best side. Of course, I hoped that the person who will hand over your passport and say: “Congratulations! Now you are a citizen of Russia!”, and feel a strong hand shake. And I heard: “Give me 80 rubles, here’s your passport and go.”

An inappropriately harsh word, an inappropriately thrown remark; metallic intonations and categorical judgments can cause severe mental trauma to a person.

Violation of the criterion of appropriateness is always acutely felt in both oral and written speech. How to rid your speech of errors? This is not given to a person from birth; the ability to change the nature of speech in relation to the content, conditions and tasks of communication is cultivated and turns into a lasting skill if a person understands the need and achieves this.

Each text as an integral speech work is assessed according to a whole set of criteria. The main components of these criteria are: 1) information-structural qualities of the text and 2) tonal (stylistic) qualities of the text.

The category of informational and structural qualities of a text includes: 1) consistency, 2) coherence and integrity, 3) accuracy, 4) clarity, intelligibility, accessibility. Tonal (stylistic) or literary qualities include: 1) correctness of speech, 2) purity of speech, 3) culture of speech.

An ideal text reveals compliance with its structure and tone of the information expressed, the topic, tasks and conditions of communication, the chosen style of presentation, if it is a literary text, or the style specified by the genre and purpose of the text, if it is a non-fiction text.

Characteristics consist of adherence to a number of principles of text construction. These principles underlie the criteria for assessing the qualities of a text.

When using the criterion of logic, the interaction of “three logics” is taken into account: the logic of reality, the logic of thought and the logic of speech expression. For example, the concept of contradiction is included in the logic of reality, but the thought expressing these contradictions should not be contradictory in its speech design.

The logical nature of the text presupposes such qualities as consistency in the presentation of the material, consistency of thought, clarity and sufficiency of argumentation, and the relationship between the general and the particular. The logical nature of thought (and, accordingly, speech expression) is also revealed in the correct reflection of the facts (objects) of reality and their connections and relationships (general and individual, cause and effect, similarity and difference, content and form, subordination and composition, essence and appearance). The logic of thought is most directly explicated in scientific, educational, official business, analytical newspaper and journalistic texts.

However, the very concept of logic can be transformed in relation to literary texts, where it is not formal (classical) logic that operates, but artistic logic, where, moreover, everyday logic is taken into account.

From the point of view of logical construction, texts are divided into two groups (as, indeed, in other cases): texts with a subject-logical structure (objective logic, logic of fact) and texts with a figurative-associative structure (subjective logic, artistic; logic of non-fact , but a vision of a fact, its perception).

The subject-logical structure is characteristic of non-fiction texts.

The figurative-associative structure of the text is subject to special evaluation criteria.

A.N. Vasilyeva in the book “Culture of Speech”, in particular, gives an example of a text with a figurative-associative structure - the poem “Sail” by M. Lermontov.

Here everything is subject to a special logic: the contrast of associations (a peaceful picture and disturbing thoughts), and the metaphorical rethinking of a sailboat into a person (alogism from the point of view common sense and logic of fact). Artistic (subjective, associative) logic directs the author’s lyrical thought in its own way:

Below him is a stream of lighter azure,

Above him is a golden ray of sunshine -

And he, the rebellious one, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms.

The very nature of the associations, objectively contradictory, is subjectively a reflection of the internal state of the hero’s personality, a changeable, alarming state. The illogicality of the messages presented here is based on the contrast of their content.

Coherence and integrity are indispensable qualities of a text, which are manifested in a purposefully constructed text. The coherence of the text is revealed at the level of thematic and thematic sequences within the framework of interphrase unities, when the structural indicators of communication are clearly recorded - explicit and implicit, contact and distant.

Explicit connection is a connection indicated by communication signals (conjunctions, introductory words and combinations; smooth transition from topic to rheme, etc.). An implicit connection is revealed by the juxtaposition of speech units, their semantic and positional relationships (without special verbal communication signals).

The integrity of the text is defined as the global connection of the text components at the content level. It is supported by keywords and their substitutes. The integrity of the text is a quality revealed through the conceptual consistency in the presentation. Keywords are the conceptual nodes of the text; they, together with the words of repeated nomination, form a system that determines the entire content and conceptual perception of the text. Keywords are semantically significant; they themselves already carry a certain content.

For example, in the cycle “Cypress Casket” by I. Annensky, through key words that attract conceptually similar words, the theme of the illusory nature of the world, the fragility of the border between the earthly and heavenly worlds, the real and the extraterrestrial, is revealed.

These are the words:

Ghostly (ghostly trefoil, ghostliness of life, planet); shadow (mourning shadows, silent shadow, languid shadows, shadow of illness); moon (symbol of the mysterious, unsteady); smoke (choking smoke enters the heart, smoky melting - actualization of the meaning of deceptiveness, anxiety); the same meaning is associated with the word “fog” (fog will rain). These words are combined into one semantic field, combined with other similar words (darkness, gloom, haze), forming the general meaning of the cycle - deceptiveness, obscurity, anxiety, unreality, lifelessness. The connection that creates the integrity of the perception of meaning is thus carried out at the content level.

Keywords perform the function of supporting words, which, when combined with other words, form a single semantic field, imparting meaningful integrity to the text. The text or a fragment of the text is then perceived as something single, organically united. Such a reference word turned out to be, for example, the word “freshness” in “Antonov Apples” by I. Bunin. This word creates a single background for the perception of the picture drawn here: I remember an early, fresh, quiet morning... I remember a large, all golden, dried up and thinning garden, I remember maple alleys, the subtle aroma of fallen leaves and - the smell Antonov apples, the smell of honey and autumn freshness<...>; It’s so nice to lie on the cart, look into the starry sky, smell the tar in the fresh air and listen to how the long train carefully creaks in the dark along the high road.

“Freshness” here is associated with autumn, and autumn is the time of ripening, the fruit-bearing time. Thus, the “freshness of autumn” (not spring!) acquires a new, symbolic meaning - the acceptance of mature, fruit-bearing, healthy life, this is a “joyful hymn to nature,” “the highest earthly good.” The image of freshness is repeated in other stories (I feel the cold and the fresh smell of a January snowstorm, strong as the smell of a cut watermelon. - “Pines”), and in poems (Stormy thunderstorms and the freshness of the nights. - “Wildflowers”; The day is cold, gloomy and fresh - and all day long I wander in the steppe free. - “No birds are visible"; The fields smell, - fresh herbs, meadows, cool breath! From the hayfields and oak forests I catch a fragrance in it. - “The fields smell"; All the fresh light of the rainbows is violet - green and sweet smell of rye. – “Two Rainbows”).

The informational qualities of a text also include accuracy, which can be in the very reflection of facts of reality by thought and in the reflection of thought in words. Elementary is the coincidence of the author’s naming and the reader’s perception of concepts and ideas. However, just like logic, accuracy and precision differ. Again, differences in understanding are related to the nature of the text itself.

There is no doubt that the accuracy of the use of a word (in full accordance with its meaning) is the dignity of the text and necessary condition for the adequacy of its perception. Inaccuracy in the use of a word, as a rule, comes down to incorrect (non-normative) word use: for example, “business trip” in relation to a person, the words “optimal”, “priority”, “adequate” with distributors indicating the degree of the attribute, etc. These are linguistic inaccuracies, and they indicate insufficient culture of the writer. There are factual inaccuracies. These are inaccuracies in the very reflection of reality. Sometimes this kind of inaccuracy occurs due to insufficient decoding of the concept. For example, in a legal document, when using the term “family,” it is not explained what is included in this concept (nephews, uncles? etc.). Or the term “housing building”. What it is? House, barn, villa, cottage? Such general concepts require decryption.

But the understanding of accuracy/inaccuracy in communication deserves special discussion. Communicative accuracy refers to accuracy that takes into account the specific situation being described. For example, the theorist of judicial eloquence P.S. Porokhovshchikov (The Art of Speech in Court. St. Petersburg, 1910. P. 19) wrote that in an indictment about a doctor who committed a criminal operation, a fellow prosecutor called the deceased girl and her father, who initiated the case, by last name. “It was an unnecessarily uncalculated precision: if he had said: “girlfriend”, “father”, these words would have reminded the jury every time of the dead young woman and of the grief of the old man who buried his beloved daughter.”

This means that the accuracy of a fact cannot have self-sufficient significance. What is important is the choice of those signs of fact that, under given conditions, would be the most convincing and, therefore, effective. The communicative expediency of the given fact is important.

There is another biased idea of accuracy - this is artistic accuracy. In this case, the concept has an emotional and psychological basis. For example, accuracy as a step-by-step, clear disclosure of figurative perspective. Deviations from the intended perspective in the development of the image, inconsistency with the chosen image, are perceived as the author’s miscalculations and inaccuracies. Finally, accuracy can be understood as the appropriateness of style to the situation. The concept of accuracy in an oratory, in an artistic or journalistic work, presupposes a psychological aspect.

Often inaccuracy can be used as a “figure of fiction”, as a literary device. In particular, A. Bely speaks about such inaccuracy in the description, or rather, uncertainty in the characterization of characters, analyzing some of N.V.’s literary techniques. Gogol - in the book “Gogol’s Mastery”. He says that the true core of the plot of “Dead Souls” is a solid figure of fiction, or a system of half-hearted properties: “not completely empty questions”, “not without pleasantness”, “neither loud nor quiet”, “some kind of blue paint kind of grey”, “either clear or gloomy” or “the devil knows what it is!”

This is how N.V. describes it. Gogol appearance of Chichikov:

In the chaise sat a gentleman, not handsome, but not bad-looking either, neither too fat nor too thin; One cannot say that he is old, but not that he is too young.

All the action of the poem takes place in “some” time and “some” space. If you count the hours spent on the road and compare them with the “written” miles, you get complete nonsense. Either in an hour he made a detour of forty miles, then in a day he cannot get to Sobakevich - and ends up in the opposite direction to Korobochka.

Fixing the meaning of uncertainty when describing the perception of the object of observation is a characteristic detail of Gogol’s stylistics. Take the following example:

Near one of the buildings, Chichikov soon noticed a figure who began to quarrel with a man who had arrived in a cart. For a long time he could not recognize what gender the figure was: a woman or a man. She was wearing a completely indefinite dress, very similar to a woman’s bonnet, and on her head was a cap, like that worn by village courtyard women, only one voice seemed to him somewhat hoarse for a woman. “Oh, woman! - he thought to himself and immediately added: “Oh, no!” - “Of course, woman!” - he finally said (Dead Souls).

M. Bulgakov often resorts to similar inaccuracies (or uncertainties) in the description, for example: Some kind of either sick or not sick, but strange, pale, overgrown with a beard, in a black cap and some kind of robe, was going downstairs with unsteady steps (Master and Margarita).

According to D.S. Likhachev, inaccuracies of artistic material are of a special kind. “Artistic creation is “imprecise” to the extent that it is required for the co-creation of the reader, viewer or listener. Potential co-creation is inherent in any work of art. Therefore, deviations from the meter are necessary for the reader or listener to creatively recreate the rhythm. Deviations from style are necessary for creative perception of style. The inaccuracy of the image is necessary to complete this image with the creative perception of the reader or viewer.”

The criterion of understandability and accessibility (intelligibility) is entirely focused on the addressee.

The understandability of the text is the ability to determine the meaning, intelligibility is the ability to overcome the “obstacles” that arise when transmitting information.

Both criteria are directly related to the effectiveness of text perception. The person who perceives someone else's speech (in this case, the text) is to some extent ahead of its movement.

This is explained by the fact that the addressee knows the “logic of things” and the “logic of speech construction”, he knows the laws of cohesion of speech units. Therefore, if this process of anticipation is disrupted, then subsequent perception is also hampered. The speech structure of the text loses clarity.

Perception may be difficult for a number of reasons, for example due to the complexity of the thought itself for a given addressee; because of the surprise of this thought, its unusualness; due to the complexity of its presentation, expression of thought; when thoughts deviate to the side; finally, because of an unfamiliar word, etc.

Ambiguity of expression may be unintentional or intentional.

Scientific, business and educational texts must be extremely clear in content and expression of thought. Ambiguities that reduce the intelligibility and understandability of the text can arise when, for example, a popular science text is oversaturated with highly specialized terminology and when the syntax is complicated. In educational texts, ambiguities are provoked by the lack of definitions of terms. In all these cases, the criterion of clarity and accessibility requires the unambiguous use of conceptual nominations and their definitions, when the addressee is assumed to be unaware of them.

Even the general graphic appearance of the text, its division or non-division into paragraphs, chapters and chapters, can either increase the degree of its intelligibility or reduce it. For example, a formal business or instructional document that is not broken down into paragraphs becomes very complex and unclear if the sentence length is excessive. This complication arises with long lists of rules, recommendations, instructions, etc. Thus, the need arises to dissect complex syntactic constructions.

A literary text has its own laws, its own relationship to clarity and ambiguity. Ambiguity can be deliberate, especially in the speech of characters, when the ambiguity of the presentation of thoughts serves as a characterological device. Inconsistencies, uncertainties, and obscurities in content can be planned by the author and correspond to his text idea.

For example, in A. Blok’s poem “The Stranger,” deliberate semantic ambiguities serve the purpose of conveying a romantic elevated state lyrical hero, the nebula of the picture drawn here displaces objects, everything becomes unsteady, wavering, unclear in outline and action moving in the “foggy window”:

And bowed ostrich feathers

My brain is swinging,

And they are bottomless blue

They bloom on the far shore.

Chichikov resorts to “ambiguity” in the presentation of his thoughts in a conversation with Manilov, although, turning to Sobakevich, he is extremely clear. The entire plot of “Dead Souls” is built on uncertainty, “obscurity.”

So, as in other cases, the criterion of clarity, intelligibility and accessibility sharply demarcates literary and non-fiction texts. The nature and purpose of the text make their own demands on these qualities: either indispensable and strict if the text is implemented in subject-logical structures; or ambiguity itself becomes a stylistic device, a method of constructing a text, if this text is focused on associative-figurative structures.

Clarity presupposes clarity, but not everything clearly stated may be accessible to everyone, and what is unclear is not always bad or detrimental.

All these qualities - accessibility, clarity, understandability - associated with the content of the text are directly aimed at perception, i.e. determined by the reader. But here the question arises about the reader himself, his ability to adequately perceive the text. Naturally, perception depends on the reader’s outlook, the degree of his education and erudition. But, as was shown in the paragraph “Meaning and sense”, “the depth of reading a text” is not necessarily related to its logical analysis. This depth may depend on the emotional subtlety of the reader rather than on the degree of development of his intellect. You can understand the logical structure of the text, analyze the meaning of the message, but not understand the meaning behind this meaning, not perceive the subtext, which is the inner essence of this text, the motive for its creation.

When characterizing the tonal or stylistic qualities of a text, the aesthetic criterion applies first of all. This criterion consists of an assessment of the purity and euphony of speech, its expressiveness in the text.

Speech is recognized as pure if it does not contain non-literary elements of language, and above all elements of language rejected by moral norms.

IN Lately There is a clear desire among some “fashionable” writers, as well as among newspaper journalists and correspondents, to “color” their speech (specifically the author’s, and not just the characters’) with obscene language. These processes of detabooization of obscene vocabulary are ultimately due to the lifting of the ban on discussing people’s intimate lives and on publishing erotic content. In this regard, the relevance of the problem of the purity of Russian speech is increasing.

Purity of speech, thus, is interpreted not only as compliance with a literary standard (norm), but also as compliance with the moral side of our consciousness. In a fundamental sense, the criterion of purity of speech is not met even when foreign language vocabulary is abused, and the term “barbarism” is more relevant today than ever.

Purity of speech is an indispensable requirement for such types of text as official, special, educational. However, in other cases, strictly standardized speech gives the impression of speech that is highly discolored, leveled, even in some sense artificial, without zest. Therefore, a literary text cannot completely submit to such an understanding of the criterion of purity of speech. Both dialects, popular vernacular, and even moderately used jargon and argotisms, as well as professionalisms, serve the purpose of creating vivid, believable speech characteristics or unique stylistic imitations. The works of V. Tendryakov, V. Belov, V. Shukshin, V. Astafiev, V. Rasputin and other masters of words actively absorb popular vernacular and dialects. This is possible with a high level of writing culture.

Here is an example of the use of vernacular in a literary text:

Stepan’s mother told some elderly woman:

“Ka-aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaаn she will fall on me, mother‚ it’s already in my chest.” I forcibly raised my head like this and asked: “For worse or for better?” And she blew right into my ear: “For good!”

The elderly woman shook her head.

- For good?

- To good, to good. She said it clearly: for good, she says.

- She warned me.

- She warned me, she warned me. And I thought this evening: “What good,” I think, “did my neighbor predict for me?” I just thought so, and I open the door - and there he is, on the threshold.

“Lord, Lord,” whispered the elderly woman and wiped her moist eyes with the end of her handkerchief. - Wow!

The women dragged Ermolai into the circle. Ermolai, without thinking twice, went to pound with one foot, and only tapped the other with his heel<...>.

- Come on, Ermil! - they shouted to Yermolai. - Today the duck is in great joy - move! (V. Shukshin. Stepka).

However, as already mentioned, in the texts of the mass press, in literary works a decline in this level of culture is noticeable. The misunderstood thesis about freedom of speech has led to a complete blurring of the boundaries between literary and non-literary language. Taboo vocabulary in the mass press cannot be justified by any “artistic” goals. General process democratization of the literary language of our time is quite objective and natural, but the costs of this process are obvious.

The assimilation of non-literary and even obscene facts of language by printed texts is so active that there is a need for careful consideration and study of such linguistic material, its characteristics and systematization. In this regard, more and more new types of dictionaries are appearing, in which peripheral layers of vocabulary are reflected. For example: Devkin V.D. Prospectus for a dictionary of colloquially colored and reduced vocabulary of the Russian language // Lexicon and lexicography. M., 1993; Elistratov B.S. Dictionary of Moscow argot. M., 1994; Explanatory Dictionary of Criminal Jargons / Ed. Yu.P. Dubyagina, A.G. Bronnikova. M., 1991; Yuganov I., Yuganova F. Russian jargon of the 60–90s. Dictionary experience. M., 1994; Dictionary of figurative expressions of the Russian language / Ed. V.N. Telia. M., 1995; and etc.

Speaking about the culture of speech, one should not confuse it with the concept of correct speech.

Correctness of speech (i.e. linguistic correctness) is compliance with the language norm. This is an indispensable, elementary quality of any text (or better said, a requirement for any text). Speech culture is more high level mastering the literary language and the method of mastering it. The culture of speech includes assessments not only of correct - incorrect, but also better - worse, more appropriate, more expressive, more accurate, etc.

The concept of expressiveness of speech in a text has different contents: expressiveness can be informational (conceptual), which is achieved by being logical and factual. And there is expressiveness of sensory impact. Both of these types of expressiveness can be open (expressive) and hidden (impressive). For example, expressiveness in scientific text is achieved through evidence, argumentation, by clarifying the position by asking questions, as, for example, in the following text:

Let's put it this way: meaning is the ability to generate other meanings.

Let us analyze this definition first formally and then meaningfully.

From a formal point of view, this is a bad definition. One might even say it is not a definition at all. Everyone will notice that the concept here is defined through itself. What could be worse for definition? What could be more unclear? What could be more illogical? (A.V. Smirnov. Logic of meaning. M., 2001. P. 43.)

In a literary text, expressiveness is created by visual imagery.

Expressiveness business text lies in emphasizing imperativeness and volitional moments.

The expressiveness of a journalistic text is born at the intersection of speech standards and speech expression. Accordingly, they are used different means expressiveness: informational and stylistic.

Particularly diverse and selective means artistic expression. As such, not only the actual artistic and visual means of language (metaphorical properties of language) can be used, but also motivated deviations from the language norm, which perform a number of stylistic functions, giving the text a special authenticity and colorfulness. In particular, deviations from language norms may be aimed at creating a “speech mask”, i.e. become a characterological means (for example, a German of Russian origin in L.N. Tolstoy in “War and Peace” pronounces: then, emperor), deviations can indicate the social marking of linguistic facts (for example, a woman from the common people in “Crime and Punishment” F M. Dostoevsky says: Were the girl and the boy angry?). In order to imitate “alien speech,” non-normative facts of language can serve as a signal of connection between different socially significant speech systems (for example, when addressing a footman, Vronsky, as if adapting to his speech, pronounces a “mamzel” alien to him; on the other hand, the coachman Philip also takes “someone else’s word” from lordly speech – “pronimazh”).

Finally, some deviations from commonly used norms may turn out to be a means of creating an artistic image, a means of creating irony, a special intimate flavor, etc.

At one time, L.V. Shcherba subtly remarked: “Only an impeccable knowledge of language and grammar makes it possible to feel the beauty of deviation from the rules. These deviations become a means of subtle and accurate characterization.”

Even deliberately used, erroneous spelling can turn out to be a stylistic device. It is not for nothing that Yu. Olesha advised writers to study the “illiteracy” of L. Tolstoy’s language. His artistic flair helped him to feel the significance of such “illiteracy.” Similar things can be found in A. Blok’s works – in spelling and grammar. For example, Blok persistently painted sidewalks, alternating snowstorms and snowstorms, yellow and yellow, lattice and lattice. At the same time, he persistently protected his mistakes from publishers, demanding that they respect these differences; I left instructions to this effect in the proofs. “Every grammatical mistake I make in poetry,” wrote A. Blok in a letter to S. Makovsky (1909), “is not accidental; behind it lies something that I internally cannot sacrifice.” For him they had a figurative and aesthetic value.

Conscious deviation from the norm as a literary device gave rise to a new term and the opposition “norm - antinorm”.

A conscious speech error, made appropriately and meaningfully, gives the speech some piquancy. The fact is that ideally normative speech psychologically creates a feeling of dryness, insipidity, it does not touch emotional strings. For example, punctuation marks that are placed correctly (in terms of grammar) are not noticed, but unusual marks attract attention. This is a kind of stylistic “charm”. It’s not for nothing that A.S. Pushkin uttered what later became catchphrase: “Like rosy lips without a smile, without a grammatical error, I cannot tolerate Russian speech.”

As in many other cases, when it comes to the peculiarities of the linguistic structure of the text, such a quality of language is permissible only in literary and journalistic texts; in other cases, strict normativity is unconditional.