In what year did Cicero live? Cicero - biography, facts from life, photographs, background information. Beginning of a political career

p.387 The heyday of Cicero’s activity coincides with the last period of civil wars in Rome. The Republic was dying in terrible convulsions. The last formidable slave uprising, led by Spartacus, was suppressed. Roman democracy, drained of blood and largely declassed, was no longer capable of major performances. In the political arena, there was essentially only one real force left: the professional military, led by unprincipled politicians seeking personal power and enrichment. Pompey, Caesar, Antony, Octavian - behind them there were almost no defined social-class groupings. But they had an army behind them, and they were strong in that passionate thirst for “order” that was increasingly gripping Roman society every year.

The position of more principled politicians - Cicero, Brutus, Cato - in this era was incredibly difficult. Those of them who were straightforward and irreconcilable died, although with glory, but having achieved nothing with their death. Those who were flexible and inclined to compromise rushed from side to side and also died, only ingloriously... Of course, Cicero’s political and personal instability, sometimes bordering on frivolity, was to a certain extent the result of his character. But to an even greater extent it was a consequence of Cicero’s class affiliation and the general political situation. In this respect he was typical of his time.

Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC. e. on his father's estate, near the small provincial town of Arpina in southern Latium. His father belonged to the equestrian class. He was, apparently, a fairly wealthy man and not without connections if he was able to give his sons - the eldest, Mark, and the youngest, Quintus - an excellent education in Rome. After graduating from primary school, Mark listened to famous Greek rhetoricians and philosophers and underwent judicial practice under the guidance of famous Roman lawyers of that time.

Cicero's first appearances as a lawyer fell at the very end of the 80s. This was the era of the bloody dictatorship of Sulla, the first who began to lay the foundations of the Roman Empire. The social support of this dictatorship, apart from the army, was the nobility. The young Cicero, both by his origin and his connections firmly united with the equestrianism, found himself in opposition to the aristocratic regime. The expression of this opposition was his speech in defense of Sextus Roscius (80).

This outrageous case seems very typical of the era. At the end of 81, a wealthy landowner from the city of Ameria in Umbria, Sextus Roscius father, was found murdered in Rome. Two relatives of the murdered man, T. Roscius Capito and T. Roscius Magnus, with whom he was in a quarrel, entered into a deal with Sulla’s favorite, the freedman Chrysogonus, so that the inheritance of the murdered man would go not to his son Sextus Roscius, but to them. For this purpose, the name of the deceased was retroactively included in the proscription lists (proscriptions ceased on June 1, 81), although he himself was a supporter of Sulla. After this, the property of Sextus Roscius was bought for next to nothing at auction by Chrysogonus. Chrysogon gave part of the purchased estates to Capito, and gave others to Magna. To get rid of Sextus Roscius' son, the scoundrels accused him of parricide.

Cicero risked taking on the defense of the accused. The case p.389 was very dangerous, taking into account the closeness of Chrysogonus to the all-powerful dictator. Cicero gave a brilliant speech, where he easily unraveled the criminal machinations that brought Roscius to the dock. Along the way, he criticized the Sullan regime - of course, without affecting Sulla himself. The accused was acquitted.

Cicero's bold speech, loudly heard among the general silence, gained him wide popularity in democratic circles, especially among the equestrians. This was the beginning of not only his lawyer, but also his political career.

Contrary to expectations, Cicero's speech went well for him. The severity of the Sullan dictatorship began to weaken; Sulla, apparently, had already begun to think about giving up power and gave up on the brave lawyer. Or maybe Sulla spared Cicero thanks to the same whim to which Caesar owed his life two years ago...

However, Cicero himself and his friends found that it would still be safer for him to leave Rome further away. Therefore, next year he and his brother Quintus go to Greece and M. Asia. A long stay there was of great importance for Cicero. Direct contact with the great Greek culture, with its immortal monuments, lectures by famous philosophers and teachers of eloquence - Antiochus of Ascalon, Molon of Rhodes, etc. - had a strong influence on Cicero. The philosophical and rhetorical education that he received in his youth in Rome was now expanded and deepened. In Rhodes, he had the opportunity to become acquainted with the political eloquence that was still preserved there. The Rhodian school of rhetoric cultivated a simpler style than that on which Cicero was brought up in his youth. Subsequently, he himself admitted that his stay in Greece and Rhodes made him change a lot.

After returning from the East, Cicero successfully continued his work as a lawyer and at the same time completed his professional service. The fame he acquired in connection with the case of Sextus Roscius and the sympathy he enjoyed in democratic circles made it easier for him, a man “new” to high Roman society, to quickly rise through the ranks. In 75 we see him as a quaestor in Sicily, in 69 as a curule aedile, in 66 as a city praetor.

While Cicero was in Sicily, he earned the respect of the provincials for his honesty and selflessness, qualities rare among provincial magistrates. Therefore, when at the end of 71 the Sicilians decided to bring their governor Gaius Verres to trial on charges of extortion, they turned to Cicero to conduct the case.

During his time as propraetor in Sicily (73-71), Verres plundered 40 million sesterces (about 4 million gold rubles). Since he belonged to the nobility, the opportunity once again presented itself for Cicero to speak out against the corrupt Roman aristocracy. He carried on the matter with the greatest energy. The incriminating material he collected was so great that Verres chose not to wait for the end of his case: he took advantage of the right of a Roman citizen to go into voluntary exile before the end of the trial and left Rome after the 1st session (preliminary stage of the trial), at which Cicero made two speeches. He subsequently published them along with five others prepared for delivery at the aborted 2nd session.

The high-profile case of Verres was of great political significance, revealing in a striking example the management methods used by the nobility in the provinces, and revealing the full depth of the decay of the ruling elite. Cicero significantly increased his political capital as a leading fighter against the aristocracy.

In 66, Cicero was praetor and made his first purely political speech for the Manilian law on the appointment of Gn. Pompey as a commander. At the beginning of 66, the tribune of the people, Gaius Manilius, introduced a bill to transfer command to Pompey p.391 in the war against the Pontic king Mithridates. The bill provided for Pompey to be given supreme power (imperium maius) in relation to other generals with the right to independently declare war and make peace. These were extraordinary powers that representatives of monetary and commercial capital (horsemen) were going to give to Pompey: the conquest of the East opened up a wide field of action for them. But precisely because the bill was in the interests of the horsemen, the Senate opposed it. In addition, Pompey at this time relied on democracy, and the aristocrats were afraid of his emergency powers.

Thus, in 66, Cicero still continued to oppose the nobility, supporting the democratic front - in particular, its right wing, the equestrianism. However, less than three years later, his political positions begin to change.

The elections of consuls for 63 took place in an atmosphere of intense political struggle. One of the applicants was L. Sergius Catilina, a man with a far from impeccable past, a former Sullan, but at this time speaking with a program of social events, among which the main one was the cassation of debts. Therefore, Catiline was supported by a very motley bloc of social strata in Italy, ranging from the ruined peasantry and the declassed urban mob to the squandered nobles. Money for the election campaign was given by Crassus and Caesar, who pursued their own personal goals in all this: seizing power and enriching themselves. The second candidate the Democratic Party nominated was a certain Gaius Antony, a former Sullan, a completely insignificant person.

However, the nobility and the horsemen acted as a united front against the “destructive” plans of Catiline. The most suitable candidate to lead this bloc was Cicero. By 63, he himself, under the influence of the leftward movement of the popular masses, had significantly evolved to the right, coming up with the slogan “harmony of the estates.” Thus, for the Senate, the odiousness of the figure of Cicero was largely weakened p.392. His fame as a lawyer guaranteed him the support of a wide range of voters. That is why the horsemen, in a bloc with the senatorial party, fielded Cicero against Catiline and Antony. Catiline failed in the elections, and Cicero and Antony were elected consuls for 63. This latter, bribed by his colleague, withdrew from active work; Cicero became the master of the situation.

The famous “year of the consulate” has arrived. Cicero, far from possessing excessive modesty, subsequently exaggerated beyond measure his personal role in the events of 63. He even composed two mediocre poems: “About his consulate” and “About his time.” In them he described his exploits with extraordinary boastfulness...

It was indeed a difficult time for the ruling elite of Roman society. At the very beginning of 63, the government was forced to tackle the draft of a large and complex agrarian law. It was introduced by the people's tribune of 63 P. Servilius Rull and inspired by the leaders of the democratic movement. The bill provided for the widespread distribution of land to the poorest citizens without the right of alienation. To carry out this measure, it was planned to create a commission of decemvirs for 5 years, vested with enormous rights, which, if the bill was adopted, would, of course, include the leaders of democracy.

Cicero made three speeches against Rullus’s bill, in which he deftly used the sentiments of the nobility and equestrians, directed both against the distribution of land and against the possibility of the emergence of a democratic dictatorship in the person of the agrarian decemvirs. We do not know the further fate of the bill. It is possible that the author, not hoping to carry it out, took it back.

In the summer of 63, Catiline again put forward his candidacy for consul for 62. At the same time, taking into account the possibility of a new failure, he secretly began to prepare an uprising. Catiline's agents recruited supporters and stockpiled weapons. One of the most important centers of the movement was northern Etruria, where a supporter of Catiline, the former Sullan officer Gaius Manlius, recruited a detachment from the bankrupt Sullan colonists. In southern Italy, slaves were involved in the movement.

In order to prevent the election of Catiline, it was necessary to exaggerate in every possible way the danger of the movement for the propertied classes. The consular elections, which probably took place in the late summer or early autumn of 63, took place in a military environment. Cicero, exaggerating the danger to which he was personally exposed, presided over the elections wearing a suit of armor under his toga and surrounded by guards. This was an unprecedented event in Roman history. The measures taken yielded results: the ordinary voter, intimidated by all sorts of rumors, did not vote for Catiline. The chosen ones were Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus.

Only then did Catiline decide to resort to rebellion. The facts surrounding the discovery of the conspiracy and its suppression are well known, and we will not dwell on them. It is only necessary to emphasize that here, too, Cicero’s role is largely inflated, primarily by himself. It did not require special insight or dexterity to uncover the conspiracy, the participants of which prepared it almost openly. It did not take much courage to accuse Catiline in the Senate, surrounded by reliable guards, when Cicero knew full well that Catiline had decided to leave Rome even before his speech. As for the “harmony of the estates,” which Cicero considered his main merit, here “fear did more than the most beautiful speeches could have done, and in this sense it can be said that by this agreement, which Cicero looked upon as the result of his policy , he owes more to Catiline than to himself” (Boissier).

Cicero served as the banner around which all the proprietary elements of Italy gathered. However, it cannot be denied that in 63 he behaved indecisively, cowardly and that he made a lot of mistakes, for which he soon had to pay severely. Catiline’s movement died not thanks to p.394 Cicero, but because Roman-Italian democracy was no longer capable of revolutionary action...

The illegal execution of five conspirators - Lentulus, Cethegas, Statilius, Gabinius and Ceparius - undermined Cicero's political position. This execution, caused by cowardice, was not forgotten by democracy to Cicero. At first, after the death of Catiline, Cicero played the first role in Rome, but soon the situation changed dramatically. In 60, an alliance was concluded between Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, known as the First Triumvirate. In their person a group came to power that was hostile to the Senate, and therefore to Cicero, who since 63 had closely associated himself with the optimates.

In the spring of 58, the tribune of the people, Publius Clodius, an agent of Caesar, proposed a law that would condemn to exile an official who executed a Roman citizen without trial. The law was clearly directed against Cicero.

There was no one to support the “father of the fatherland”. The notorious unity of the classes disintegrated as soon as the fear of Catiline disappeared. The horsemanship and the nobility separately were not strong enough to play any major role at the moment. Moreover, the Senate could not forgive Cicero for the fact that he, an ignorant man, made his way into the ranks of the nobility. Cicero, after futile attempts to escape the fate that awaited him, left for the Balkan Peninsula even before the law against him was passed. His property was confiscated.

Cicero's letters from exile (58-57) testify to his complete confusion and loss of spirit. With his usual expressiveness, he complains bitterly about his misfortunes and the malice of his enemies. He sees everything in a black light, everything seems lost to him, he thinks about suicide. This state of extreme depression was characteristic of Cicero, who was very easily excited, but just as easily fell into gloomy despair.

Cicero's exile lasted about 1½ years. During this time, a certain regrouping of social forces took place in Rome. A rapprochement began to emerge between Pompey and the Senate, which occurred on the basis of their common fear of Caesar, who fought extremely successfully in Gaul. This rapprochement was accelerated by the unrestrained demagogic policy of Clodius. To paralyze his influence, Pompey became close to the people's tribune of 57, Annius Milo, who was not inferior to Clodius in demagoguery. Supporters of Cicero took advantage of the cooling between Pompey and Clodius. With the help of Milo and Pompey, the exile was amnestied and in September 57 returned to Rome, solemnly greeted by the population. “It seemed,” he later said in a speech against Piso, “that the whole city had been torn from its foundations to greet its liberator.” The confiscated property was returned to him.

At first, Cicero enjoyed his triumph: “It seems to me,” he said, “that I am not only returning from exile; It seems to me that I am ascending to heaven." However, the intoxication soon passed. Complete anarchy reigned in Rome. The mercenary gangs of Clodius and Milo, consisting of the scum of society, staged real battles with each other. Cicero's life was in danger more than once. This anarchy was artificially maintained by the triumvirs through their agents, since it required the establishment of a dictatorship, which both Caesar and Pompey sought. Normal political life in Rome became impossible, and Cicero soon saw that he, in essence, was only a tool in the hands of the triumvirs.

Cicero retreats from politics and devotes himself to advocacy. At the same time, he intensively studied literature, which provided more opportunities for the free expression of his views. In 55 he wrote the dialogue “On the Orator”, in 54 he began working on his famous essay “On the State”. In both works, Cicero’s political platform of this period appears. He is a supporter p.396 of a moderate aristocratic republic in the spirit of the traditional Roman constitution.

In 51, Cicero was appointed proconsul to the province of Cilicia, where, thanks to his personal unselfishness, as before in Sicily, he gained the respect of the local population and popularity among the army.

At the end of 50, Cicero returned to Rome, where the situation was extremely tense. The Republic was on the eve of a civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Cicero had to decide which side he would take. The choice was not easy, since he personally did not like Pompey and did not believe in the success of his cause. However, Pompey was considered the defender of the republic, and all of Cicero's friends stood on his side. This forced Cicero, after much hesitation, to make a choice and go to Pompey’s camp. “Like a bull following a herd,” he wrote to Atticus, “I go after honest people.”

On August 9, 48, Pompey was defeated at Pharsalus. This forced Cicero to abandon further struggle. He arrived in Italy and was forced to sit in Brundisium for 11 months before receiving permission from Caesar to return to his estates.

During the period of dictatorship, Cicero, of course, again withdrew from political activity, although he sometimes gave speeches to Caesar in defense of the former Pompeians. His personal relationship with the dictator was quite good. Again, as in the 50s, Cicero passionately pursued literature. He writes rhetorical treatises Brutus and Orator and a number of philosophical works: On the Limits of Good and Evil, Tusculan Discourses, On the Nature of the Gods, etc. These latter played a huge role in introducing the Roman intelligentsia to Greek philosophy.

March 15, 44 Caesar fell under the daggers of the conspirators. For Cicero, a new (this time the last) period of political activity began. It goes without saying that in the struggle between the Caesarians and the Republican Party, he p.397 took the side of the latter. In the first time after the murder of Caesar, Cicero could console himself with the illusion that he, as in 63, was the leader of the Senate... He considered Antony the main enemy of the republic and the successor of Caesar’s political line. However, already at the end of April, young Octavian, Caesar’s grandnephew, adopted by him, and heir to most of his fortune, appeared in Rome. The cunning young man deceived the old and experienced politician: Cicero declared Octavian “defender of the republic” and took him under his protection. At the beginning of September, he made his first speech against Anthony, demanding that he be declared an outlaw. This was Cicero's first Philippica, and was followed by 13 others.

But Cicero, as often happened to him, this time turned out to be short-sighted. It was not he who controlled events, but they who controlled them. The Caesarians needed to unite their forces for a while. In November 43, the so-called “II Triumvirate” was concluded, an official alliance of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus, who were given unlimited powers “for the organization of the state” for 5 years.

The first result of the conclusion of the alliance was political murders and proscriptions, which in their thoughtfulness and cruelty far surpassed the proscriptions of Sulla. A list of victims was compiled in advance, which included political and personal enemies of the triumvirs and many simply rich people. Antony insisted on including Cicero and all his relatives in the list. When the killings began, Cicero decided to flee to Brutus, who, according to rumors, was at that time with large forces in Macedonia. He even boarded a ship and reached Cape Circei. “The helmsmen,” says Plutarch, “wanted to sail from there immediately, but Cicero, either because he was afraid of the sea, or had not yet completely lost faith in Caesar, got off the ship and walked 100 stadia, as if heading to Rome, and then, in p.398 confusion, he again changed his intention and went down to the sea in Astura. Here he spent the night in terrible thoughts about his hopeless situation, so that it even occurred to him to secretly sneak into Caesar’s house and, committing suicide at his hearth, bring the spirit of vengeance upon him; and the fear of torment distracted him from this step. And again, grasping at other disorderly plans he had come up with, he allowed his slaves to take him by sea to Caieta, where he had an estate... Cicero went ashore and, entering his villa, lay down to rest... The slaves reproachfully asked themselves whether they would really wait until they witness the murder of their master and protect him... Acting either by requests or by compulsion, they carried him in a stretcher to the sea. At the same time, the murderers appeared, the centurion Herennius and the military tribune Popillius, whom Cicero had once defended in a trial on charges of parricide; There were also servants with them. Finding the doors locked, they forced them open. Cicero was not there... The tribune, taking several people with him, ran around the garden to the exit; Cicero, seeing Herennius running along the paths, ordered the slaves to place the stretcher right there, and he himself, as was his habit, holding his chin with his left hand, stubbornly looked at the murderer. His neglected appearance, overgrown hair and face, worn out from care, inspired regret, so that almost all those present covered their faces while Herennius killed him. He stuck his neck out of the stretcher and was stabbed to death. He died at the age of sixty-four from birth. Then Herennius, following the orders of Antony, cut off Cicero's head and hands, with which he wrote the Philippics.

The severed parts of Cicero's body were brought to Rome and, by order of Anthony, were exhibited in the forum - on the platform from which Cicero had previously usually addressed the people p.399 with speeches. “And more people flocked to look at this,” notes Appian, “than before to listen to him.”

With the death of Cicero, a major figure left the scene. However, its significance does not lie in the political sphere. Cicero's very social position doomed him to constant hesitation and compromise. A horseman by birth and a lawyer by profession, he, together with his class, occupied an intermediate position between nobility and democracy, and his activity as a lawyer developed in him the gift of adapting to any circumstances. Catiline's movement brought him closer to the senatorial party. However, he could never become “one of the people” for the Roman nobility. Aristocrats always looked at him as an upstart.

Added to this was Cicero’s personal unsuitability for political activity. He lacked exactly what is necessary for a major public figure: insight, the ability to quickly navigate the situation, understand people, determination and composure. Cicero was indecisive, short-sighted, infinitely vain, fussy, easily succumbed to momentary moods and did not know how to understand people at all. After the conspiracy of Catiline, he really imagined himself as the savior of the fatherland, and this completely turned his head. The exile, in essence, did not sober him up. He continued to make one political mistake after another until he made the last one, which cost him his life...

Cicero's historical significance lies in his literary activities: his speeches, philosophical works and letters.

In the person of Cicero, Roman eloquence reached the highest point of its development, although it lost its former spontaneity, which we find, for example, in the Gracchi. Cicero went through an excellent school of rhetoric, first in Rome and then in the East. And here and there he could use the advice of the best teachers of eloquence and listen to the most brilliant speakers. The turbulent times in which Cicero lived opened up wide opportunities for the practical application of his theoretical knowledge and abilities. In addition to the huge number of judicial and political speeches delivered or written by Cicero, he left several works on the theory of oratory: On the Orator, Brutus, Orator.

Cicero's oratorical style can be called "moderate Asianism". He carefully crafted his speeches, constructed according to certain rules. As an orator, Cicero is unusually flexible, resourceful and versatile. He resorts to pathos, subtle irony or crude invective with equal ease. He always has a huge vocabulary at his disposal. He makes extensive use of synonyms, metaphors, etc. The Asian school loved to resort to rhythmic speech. Cicero also made extensive use of this technique, which is too artificial for our ears, but which was highly valued by his contemporaries.

Cicero's speeches, as well as his other literary works, had a great influence on the development of Latin prose. But he was appreciated not only by his contemporaries and immediate ancient descendants. Cicero's influence extended much further. During the Renaissance, the creators of the literary languages ​​of the new Europe were brought up in the style of Cicero. Figures of the bourgeois French revolution of the 18th century. carefully studied his speeches and tried to imitate them.

Cicero's speeches, both political and judicial, provide enormous historical material, but extremely subjectively illuminated. The very nature of Roman eloquence of this era p.401 (especially judicial) allowed not only arbitrary coverage of facts, but also their direct distortion through one-sided selection, omission and even falsification. Cicero, as we have seen, was a politically unstable and carried away man. In the heat of battle, he trashed his opponents, stopping at nothing. Being primarily an orator, Cicero often allowed himself to be carried away by a beautiful phrase as far as he himself did not want, for which he later bitterly repented.

The philosophical spirit was alien to the Romans: they were too practical for that. Therefore, in philosophy, their dependence on the Greeks is most prominent. In the II-I centuries. In Greece, the most popular were two schools of thought: moderate academic skepticism and stoicism. Cicero, who was a pure eclecticist and set himself the task of introducing Roman society to the last word of Greek philosophy, combined in his views the most current ideas of both systems: the doctrine of probability as a criterion of truth (late Academy) and, in the spirit of Stoicism, the assumption of some general concepts, characteristic of all people: the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, etc.

Cicero set himself not so much scientific as educational goals. Moreover, he was not a specialist philosopher. From this follow both the advantages and disadvantages of his philosophical works. They are accessible to every educated person, written in elegant and simple language. Cicero did an excellent job of translating Greek philosophical terminology into Latin. On the other hand, Cicero, not possessing special knowledge, often made mistakes in the presentation of philosophical systems. Much of his work is written hastily, and he often lacks a critical attitude towards the views expressed.

Nevertheless, Cicero owes enormous credit to the history of culture, since it was he who first introduced Greek philosophy to Roman educated society on a large scale. And before the people of new Europe were able to directly use the treasures of this philosophy, they became acquainted with it mainly through Cicero.

Cicero's correspondence is of great historical value. Four collections of his correspondence have survived: 1) letters to various addressees (usually called Letters to Loved Ones), 2) letters to his brother Quintus, 3) letters to Cicero's close friend, Titus Pomponius Atticus, and 4 ) correspondence with M. Brutus.

Cicero was a great master of the epistolary style. He knew how and loved to write. Its syllable is light and varied depending on the personality of the addressee. Some of the letters were undoubtedly intended for publication, therefore they were processed literary and therefore do not have the character of immediacy. But many letters were not intended for publication. Therefore, they have an intimate character, full of ease and naturalness. This enhances their historical significance. Cicero's correspondence contains enormous material for the history of civil wars, for characterizing both Cicero himself and his contemporaries. It gives a vivid picture of political and social life, a picture of the life and customs of Rome in the mid-1st century. BC e.

WITH. Kovalev

Marcus Tullius Cicero, the famous orator of antiquity, personifies, along with Demosthenes, the highest level of oratory.

Cicero lived from 106 to 43 BC. e. He was born in Arpina, southeast of Rome, and came from the equestrian class. Cicero received an excellent education, studied Greek poets, and was interested in Greek literature. In Rome, he studied eloquence from the famous orators Antony and Crassus, listened to and commented on the famous tribune Sulpicius speaking at the forum, and studied the theory of eloquence. The speaker needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it from the popular lawyer of that time, Scaevola. Knowing the Greek language well, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy thanks to his closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus, the Stoic Diodorus and the head of the New Academic school Philo. From him he learned dialectics - the art of argument and argumentation.

Although Cicero did not adhere to a specific philosophical system, in many of his works he expressed views close to Stoicism. From this point of view, in the second part of the treatise “On the State,” he considers the best statesman, who must possess all the qualities of a highly moral person. Only he could improve morals and prevent the death of the state. Cicero's views on the best government system are presented in the first part of this treatise. The author comes to the conclusion that the best political system existed in the Roman Republic before the Gracchi reform, when the monarchy was exercised in the person of two consuls, the power of the aristocracy was represented by the Senate, and democracy was exercised by the people's assembly.

For a better state, Cicero considers it right to establish ancient laws and revive the “custom of the ancestors” (treatise “On Laws”).

Cicero also expresses his protest against tyranny in a number of works in which ethical issues predominate: these are his treatises “On Friendship”, “On Duties”; in the latter he condemns Caesar, directly calling him a tyrant. He wrote treatises “On the Limits of Good and Evil”, “Tusculan Conversations”, “On the Nature of the Gods”. Cicero does not reject or affirm the existence of gods, but at the same time recognizes the need for a state religion; he resolutely rejects all miracles and fortune-telling (treatise “On Fortune-telling”).

Questions of philosophy were of an applied nature for Cicero and were considered by him depending on their practical significance in the field of ethics and politics.

Considering the horsemen to be the “support” of all classes, Cicero did not have a specific political platform. He first sought to gain the favor of the people, and then went over to the side of the optimates and recognized the alliance of horsemen with the nobility and the Senate as the basis of the state.

His political activity can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: “Let you have the confidence that the Senate evaluates you according to how you lived before, and looks at you as a defender of its authority, Roman horsemen and rich people based on past life yours they see in you as a champion of order and tranquility, but the majority, since your speeches in courts and at meetings showed you to be half-hearted, let them believe that you will act in their interests.”

The first speech that has reached us (81), “In Defense of Quinctius,” about the return of illegally seized property to him, brought Cicero success. In it he adhered to the Asian style, in which his rival Hortensius was famous. He achieved even greater success with his speech “In Defense of Roscius of Ameripus.” Defending Roscius, whom his relatives accused of murdering his own father for selfish purposes, Cicero spoke out against the violence of the Sullan regime, exposing the dark actions of Sulla’s favorite, Cornelius Chrysogonus, with the help of whom the relatives wanted to take possession of the property of the murdered man. Cicero won this trial and achieved popularity among the people with his opposition to the aristocracy.

Fearing reprisals from Sulla, Cicero went to Athens and the island of Rhodes, ostensibly due to the need to study philosophy and oratory more deeply. There he listened to the rhetorician Apollonius Molon, who influenced Cicero's style. From this time on, Cicero began to adhere to the “average” style of eloquence, which occupied the middle between the Asiatic and moderate Attic styles.

Brilliant education, oratorical talent, and a successful start to advocacy gave Cicero access to government positions. The reaction against the aristocracy after the death of Sulla in 78 assisted him in this. He took his first public position as quaestor in Western Sicily in 76. Having gained the trust of the Sicilians through his actions, Cicero defended their interests against the governor of Sicily, propraetor Verres, who, using uncontrolled power, plundered the province. The speeches against Verres had political significance, since in essence Cicero opposed the oligarchy of optimates and defeated them, despite the fact that the judges belonged to the senatorial class and the famous Hortensius was Verres’ defender.

In 66, Cicero was elected praetor; he makes a speech “On the appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as commander” (or “In defense of the law of Manilius”). Cicero supported Manilius's bill to grant unlimited power to fight Mithridates to Gnaeus Pompey, whom he praises immoderately.

This speech, defending the interests of moneyed people and directed against bilitism, was a great success. But this speech ends Cicero’s speeches against the Senate and the optimates.

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party intensified its demands for radical reforms (debt collection, allotment of land to the poor). This met with clear opposition from Cicero, who in his speeches sharply opposed the agrarian bill introduced by the young tribune Rull, on the purchase of land in Italy and the settlement of it by poor citizens.

When Cicero was elected consul in 63, he reinstated the senators and equestrians against the agrarian reforms. In the second agrarian speech, Cicero speaks harshly of representatives of democracy, calling them troublemakers and rebels, threatening that he will make them so meek that they themselves will be surprised. Speaking against the interests of the poor, Cicero stigmatizes their leader Lucius Sergius Catilina, around whom people who suffered from the economic crisis and senate tyranny were grouped. Catiline, like Cicero, put forward his candidacy for consul in 63, but, despite all the efforts of the left wing of the democratic group to get Catiline into consul, he failed due to the opposition of the optimates. Catiline hatched a conspiracy, the purpose of which was an armed uprising and the murder of Cicero. The plans of the conspirators became known to Cicero thanks to well-organized espionage.

In his four speeches against Catiline, Cicero attributes to his opponent all sorts of vices and the most vile goals, such as the desire to set fire to Rome and destroy all honest citizens.

Catiline left Rome and, with a small detachment, surrounded by government troops, died in a battle near Pistoria in 62. The leaders of the radical movement were arrested and, after an illegal trial against them, on the orders of Cicero, they were strangled in prison.

Currying favor with the Senate, Cicero in his speeches promotes the slogan of an alliance of senators and equestrians.

It goes without saying that the reactionary part of the Senate approved of Cicero’s actions in suppressing Catiline’s conspiracy and bestowed on him the title of “Father of the Fatherland.”

The activities of Catiline are tendentiously covered by the Roman historian Sallust. Meanwhile, Cicero himself, in his speech for Murepa (XXV), cites the following remarkable statement of Catiline: “Only he who is himself unhappy can be a faithful intercessor of the unfortunate; but believe, you who have suffered and the disadvantaged, the promises of both the prosperous and the happy... the least timid and the most suffered - that is who should be called as the leader and standard-bearer of the oppressed.”

Cicero's brutal reprisal against Catiline's supporters aroused displeasure among the popular people. With the formation of the first triumvirate, which included Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, Cicero, at the request of the people's tribune Clodius, was forced to go into exile in 58.

In 57, Cicero returned to Rome again, but no longer had the same political influence and was mainly engaged in literary work.

His speeches in defense of the people's tribune Sestius and in defense of Milop date back to this time. At the same time, Cicero wrote the famous treatise “On the Orator”. As proconsul in Cilicia, in Asia Minor (51-50), Cicero gained popularity among the army, especially due to his victory over several mountain tribes. The soldiers proclaimed him emperor (the highest military commander). Upon returning to Rome at the end of 50, Cicero sided with Pompey, but after his defeat at Pharsalus (48), he refused to participate in the struggle and outwardly made peace with Caesar. He took up issues of oratory, publishing the treatises “Orator”, “Brutus”, and popularizing Greek philosophy in the field of practical morality.

After the assassination of Caesar by Brutus (44), Cicero again returned to the ranks of active figures, speaking on the side of the Senate party, supporting Octavian in the fight against Antony. With great harshness and passion, he wrote 14 speeches against Antony, which, in imitation of Demosthenes, are called "Philippines." For them he was included in the proscription list and in 43 BC. e. killed.

Cicero left works on the theory and history of eloquence, philosophical treatises, 774 letters and 58 judicial and political speeches. Among them, as an expression of Cicero’s views on poetry, a special place is occupied by a speech in defense of the Greek poet Archias, who appropriated Roman citizenship to himself. Having exalted Archius as a poet, Cicero recognizes the harmonious combination of natural talent and assiduous, patient work.

Cicero's literary legacy not only gives a clear picture of his life and work, which was often not always principled and full of compromises, but also paints a historical picture of the turbulent era of the civil war in Rome.

Language and style of Cicero's speeches. For a political and especially a judicial speaker, it was important not so much to truthfully highlight the essence of the case, but to present it in such a way that the judges and the public surrounding the judicial tribunal would believe in its truth. The public's attitude towards the speaker's speech was considered as the voice of the people and could not but put pressure on the decision of the judges. Therefore, the outcome of the case depended almost exclusively on the skill of the orator. Cicero's speeches, although they were structured according to the scheme of traditional ancient rhetoric, also give an idea of ​​the techniques by which he achieved success.

Cicero himself notes in his speeches “an abundance of thoughts and words,” in most cases stemming from the speaker’s desire to divert the judges’ attention from unfavorable facts, focus it only on circumstances useful for the success of the case, and give them the necessary illumination. In this regard, the story was important for the trial, which was supported by tendentious argumentation, often by distortion of witness testimony. Dramatic episodes and images were woven into the story, giving the speeches an artistic form.

In a speech against Verres, Cicero talks about the execution of the Roman citizen Gavius, whom they had no right to punish without trial. They flogged him in the square with rods, and he, without uttering a single groan, only repeated: “I am a Roman citizen!” Outraged by the arbitrariness, Cicero exclaims: “O sweet name of freedom! O exclusive right associated with our citizenship! O tribunician power, which the Roman plebes so much desired and which was finally returned to him! These pathetic exclamations enhanced the drama of the story.

Cicero uses this method of varying style, but rarely. The pathetic tone is replaced by a simple one, the seriousness of the presentation is replaced by a joke, ridicule.

Recognizing that “the speaker should exaggerate the fact,” Cicero in his speeches considers amplification, a technique of exaggeration, to be natural. Thus, in a speech against Catiline, Cicero claims that Catiline was going to set fire to Rome from 12 sides and, patronizing the bandits, destroy all honest people. Cicero was not averse to theatrical techniques, which caused his opponents to accuse him of insincerity and false tearfulness. Wanting to evoke pity for the accused in a speech in defense of Milo, he himself says that “he cannot speak from tears,” and in another case (speech in defense of Flaccus) he picked up the child, the son of Flaccus, and with tears asked the judges to spare his father .

The use of these techniques in accordance with the content of speeches creates a special oratorical style. The liveliness of his speech is acquired through the use of a common language, the absence of archaisms and the rare use of Greek words. Sometimes speech consists of short simple sentences, sometimes they give way to exclamations, rhetorical questions and long periods, in the construction of which Cicero followed Demosthenes. They are divided into parts, usually having a metrical form and a sonorous ending to the period. This gives the impression of rhythmic prose.

Rhetorical works. In theoretical works on eloquence, Cicero summarized the principles, rules and techniques that he followed in his practical activities. His treatises “On the Orator” (55), “Brutus” (46) and “Orator” (46) are known.

The work “On the Orator” in three books represents a dialogue between two famous orators, the predecessors of Cicero-Licinnus Crassus and Mark Antony, representatives of the Senate party. Cicero expresses his views through the mouth of Crassus, who believes that only a well-rounded educated person can be an orator. In such a speaker, Cicero sees a politician, the savior of the state in an alarming time of civil wars.

In the same treatise, Cicero touches on the structure and content of speech, its design. A prominent place is given to language, rhythm and periodicity of speech, its pronunciation, and Cicero refers to the performance of an actor who, through facial expressions and gestures, seeks to influence the soul of the listeners.

In the treatise "Brutus", dedicated to his friend Brutus, Cicero talks about the history of Greek and Roman eloquence, dwelling in more detail on the latter. The content of this work is revealed in its other title, “On Famous Orators.” This treatise gained great importance during the Renaissance. Its goal is to prove the superiority of Roman orators over Greek ones.

Cicero believes that the simplicity of the Greek orator Lysias is not enough - this simplicity must be complemented by the sublimity and power of expression of Demosthenes. Characterizing many orators, he considers himself the outstanding Roman orator.

Finally, in the treatise “The Orator”, Cicero sets out his opinion on the use of different styles depending on the content of the speech, with the aim of convincing listeners, impressing with grace and beauty of speech, and, finally, captivating and exciting with sublimity. Much attention is paid to the periodization of speech; the theory of rhythm is described in detail, especially at the endings of period members.

The works of the speaker that have reached us have exceptional historical and cultural value. Already in the Middle Ages, and especially during the Renaissance, specialists were interested in the rhetorical and philosophical works of Cicero, and according to the latter they became acquainted with the Greek philosophical schools. Humanists especially appreciated Cicero's style.

A brilliant stylist, able to express the slightest shades of thought, Cicero was the creator of that elegant literary language, which was considered a model of Latin prose. During the Enlightenment, rationalist philosophical views Cicero influenced Voltaire and Montesquieu, who wrote the treatise “The Spirit of the Laws.”

Life story
Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106, Arpinum - December 7, 43 BC, near Caieta, now Gaeta), Roman orator, politician, philosopher. The author of numerous philosophical and legal treatises, letters and court speeches, from which many generations of jurists of antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times learned eloquence.
Origin and upbringing. Cicero's father belonged to the equestrian class; Together with his children, he moved to Rome, where, under the supervision of the orator Crassus, they received a Greek education. The poet Archius, the orators Mark Antony, Sulpicius Rufus, Aurelius Cotta, the Epicurean philosopher Phaedrus, and the Stoic philosopher Diodotus had a great influence on Cicero's upbringing. Cicero studied law under the guidance of the Mutsi brothers Scaevoli - pontiff and augur. He delivered his first court speech, “In Defense of Roscius,” in 81 in the case against Chrysogonus, the beloved freedman of the dictator Sulla. During the period of rampant proscription executions of Sulla, this was a risky step on the part of Cicero. Nevertheless, he won the trial and, fleeing the wrath of Sulla, retired to Athens, where he studied Greek philosophy and oratory. Returning to Rome after the death of Sulla, Cicero received the position of quaestor in 76. Supplying Rome with cheap Sicilian bread at a time of high prices, he, with his moderation and honesty, achieves the love of the Sicilians. At 70 he pronounces the famous “Speech against Verres”, accusing the governor of Sicily of bribery, extortion and outright robbery of the Sicilians. This speech brought great fame to Cicero, and in 69 the people elected him curule aedile, and in 63 - consul. During this period many judicial speeches were delivered; Cicero never took money for his speeches, but was very reluctant to take on accusatory speeches (the vast majority of his speeches were speeches of defense, not accusations). Over the course of his long life, he composed more than 100 speeches, 56 of which have survived in full, only fragments of 20 have survived, and we know another 35 only by their titles.
Conspiracy of Catiline. The consulate of 63 was the apogee of Cicero's political success. He managed to uncover the conspiracy of Catiline, who sought to seize power in Rome, having first arranged arson and reprisals against political opponents. The conspirators failed to kill Cicero, but the consul himself, in several Senate speeches against Catiline, which became textbook examples of political oratory, achieved the conviction and execution of the conspirators. The discovery of the conspiracy brought great fame to Cicero; even the incorruptible Cato called him “father of the fatherland.” However, Cicero’s excessive vanity, which forced him to extol himself in all his speeches, caused discontent among many. Cicero's political opponents, in particular the supporters of Julius Caesar, took advantage of this discontent. In April 58, Caesar's protege, the plebeian tribune Clodius, achieved the adoption of a law directed against Cicero, which condemned any magistrate who executed a Roman citizen without trial to exile. Without waiting for accusations, Cicero went into voluntary exile. His property was confiscated. Already in September 57, Cicero was returned from exile, but his strength was broken. He realizes the powerlessness of the Senate before the triumvirs and seeks the favor of Pompey and Caesar. In 51 he was appointed governor of Cilicia, where, having won a victory over the robber tribes of Aman, he received the honorary title of “emperor” from the army. During the civil war, he joins Pompey, after the Battle of Pharsalus he returns to Italy, receiving Caesar's forgiveness in October 47. During this period, Cicero retired from public affairs and, engaged in philosophy, wrote numerous treatises.
Treatises. The earliest treatise, Rhetoric, was written by Cicero as a youth (83). His treatise in 3 books “On the Orator” (55) still serves teaching aid judicial rhetoric. 46 includes the book "Brutus" on the history of oratory. Of the treatises on the philosophy of law, 6 books “On the State” (53), 6 books “On Laws” (51), 3 books “On Duties” (44) are of particular importance. In 46-45, philosophical treatises “On the Limits of Good and Evil”, “Tusculan Conversations”, “On Old Age”, “On Friendship”, religious and philosophical works “On the Nature of the Gods”, “On Divination”, “On Fate” were written. etc. Among his works that have not survived, his works “On Civil Law”, “On Augurs”, “On Glory”, “On Philosophy”, “On Strengthening the State”, etc. are known.
Death of Cicero.
The assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 awakens in Cicero hopes for the revival of the republic, and he returns to Rome to active political activity. Having taken the side of Octavian, from September 44 to April 43, he delivered his famous “Philippics” - incriminating speeches against Anthony - in the Senate and National Assembly. However, Octavian betrays his supporter, and at the conclusion of his triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus (October 43), Cicero, along with 16 other prominent republicans, ends up on the proscription lists. While trying to escape in early December, he was killed. His head and right hand were delivered to the delighted Antony, who placed them on the oratorical platform of the Roman forum.
The glory of Cicero as an orator has not faded over the centuries: the Church Fathers Lactantius, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine, Renaissance writers Petrarch and Boccaccio, French enlighteners Diderot, Voltaire, Montesquieu, J. J. Rousseau and many others studied and imitated him. . About the state. About laws. M., 1966. About old age. About friendship. About responsibilities. M., 1975. Philosophical treatises. M., 1985. Speeches. M., 1993. T. 1-2. Letters. M., 1994. T. 1-3. Literature: Plutarch. Comparative biographies. M., 1964. T. 3. P. 158-192. Utchenko S. L. Cicero and his time. M., 1972. Gelzer M. Cicero. Wiesbaden, 1969.L. L. Kofanov

The politician, philosopher and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero lived in Ancient Rome. The Roman did not come from a noble family, but with his oratorical talent he managed to reach unprecedented heights in his political career. Marcus Tullius remained a supporter of the republican system until the last, for which he paid with his life. Some literary, philosophical and oratorical works of the figure have survived to this day. Cicero's contemporaries believed that the philosopher had a standard narrative style.

The work of Marcus Tullius influenced the formation of ancient Roman culture. Cicero's treatises and speeches delighted historians of different times. Researchers draw important conclusions based on the works of the philosopher.

Childhood and youth

The birth of Marcus Tullius Cicero occurred on January 3, 106 BC. The future philosopher rarely remembered his birthday, as he considered it the wrong holiday. According to the opinion, the birth was easy, after which the boy was handed over to the nurse, who dreamed that Cicero would become a “good for the Romans.”

Marcus Tullius was born on his grandfather's estate, located next to the Fibren River, in close proximity to Arpin. Later, the young man moved to the city, where he received his primary education. Critics of the time considered Cicero unworthy and constantly referred to his “village birth.”

The relatives of Marcus Tullius were among the circle of respected people. For example, Aunt’s husband Gaius Aculeon had close contact with the orator Lucius Licinius Crassus. Cicero was inspired by his uncle, considering the activist a man of subtle intellect. Akuleon understood civil law.

As a child, Cicero and his cousin came to Rome to communicate with Crassus. The residence of Marcus Tullius's father was in the city. The house was located in Karina's quarter. The philosopher's contemporaries argued that Cicero studied easily and insatiably. As a teenager, he learned Greek and studied science with teachers from Greece.

Literature and philosophy

Oratory was an outlet for Cicero, so it is not surprising that the orator regularly wrote essays on related topics. The philosopher spoke about the theoretical and practical issues of speaking in public. Cicero's treatises on the topic “On the Orator”, “The Orator”, “On the Construction of Speech”, “Brutus”, “On the Finding of Material” are known to history.

Rhetorical education in those years did not suit Marcus Tullius, so the orator tried to reach young minds with creativity. Cicero set a high standard that was impossible to achieve, but it brought aspiring speakers closer to these ideas.

Cicero believed that a speaker needs a broad outlook: it is necessary to navigate rhetoric, philosophy, history and civil law. It is important for a speaker to be educated and sincere, to have a sense of tact. The philosopher gave a lot of advice to young people. For example, in a speech the use of rhetorical figures is acceptable, but statements should not be overloaded with them. Consistency is one of the foundations of oratory.

Neologisms can be used in speech, but the new words must be understandable to listeners. You should not avoid figurative and expressive means, but metaphors should be selected that are natural and lively. You can practice reasoning using philosophical topics. Cicero advised practicing correct and clear pronunciation. The speaker liked the speeches of the elderly Roman women.

Political and judicial speeches must have a certain structure, different from everyday speeches. Pathos and jokes will not help in the perception of the presentation of thoughts, but in some situations they will make the speech lively. The speaker needs to have a fine sense of these facets. According to Mark Tullius, it is better to leave emotions for the final part of the speech. This way you can achieve maximum effect.

During his speeches, Cicero noted the benefits of literature for both the writer and the readers. Often, the creators of literary works tell ordinary people in biographies and poems about the valor and heroism of famous rulers and great people. The speaker advised all citizens with a poetic or literary gift to actively develop their talent, since nature is not capable of giving the maximum level of mastery of words.

When it came to poetry, Cicero became a conservative. The speaker liked traditional versions of versification, and modernist poets were criticized. The philosopher believed that modern poetry is a goal, not a tool for glorifying the homeland and educating patriots. Marcus Tullius liked epic poetry and tragedy.

It is interesting that Cicero considered history not a science, but a form of oratory. The philosopher tried to encourage his compatriots to expound historical events that happened recently. According to Marcus Tullius, analysis of ancient times is not necessary. Listing the events that took place is not of interest to ordinary people, since it is more interesting to read what prompted the figures to commit certain actions.

Political Views

Cicero in politics appeared as a theorist and practitioner. Experts say that Marcus Tullius made contributions to the theory of state and law. Some note duplicity in judgments on paper and in words in Cicero. Despite this, the Soviet scientist S. L. Utchenko expressed a different opinion - in his treatises, the philosopher offers to get acquainted with the views on political theory that find application in public activities. Marcus Tullius sincerely believed that statesmen should necessarily study philosophy.

Public speaking became habitual for Cicero already at the age of 25. The speaker made his first speech in honor of the dictator Sulla. Despite all the danger of judgments, the Roman authorities did not persecute Marcus Tullius. Soon the philosopher moved to Athens to study his favorite sciences. Only after the death of the dictator did Cicero return to his homeland. The philosopher is invited as a defense attorney in court proceedings.

Cicero's political judgments were based on Greek thought. But at the same time, Marcus Tullius was closer to the Roman state; the philosopher tried to emphasize the structure and specifics. The existence of the Roman Republic and its difference from the Greek city-states became the main topic of the speaker’s research and reasoning. In his book On the State, Cicero stated that the state belongs to the people. At the same time, there must be agreement between people both in interests and in matters of law.

According to the philosopher, the Roman Republic needs a leader. The ruler will be entrusted with the responsibility of solving the problems and contradictions of the people. Cicero did not like the system of power introduced by Octavian Augustus. The speaker considered himself a republican whose views were contrary to the princeps. The thesis about the supra-class leader still causes heated debate among historians and researchers. It is not known for certain what decision Cicero came to on this issue, since the philosopher’s books have reached the present day in fragments.

For a long time, the politician searched for ideal laws that would help preserve the state. Cicero believed that a country develops in two ways - perishes or prospers. For the latter, you need an ideal the legislative framework. At the same time, Marcus Tullius was skeptical about fate.

From the pen of Cicero comes the treatise “On the Laws”. In the publication, the philosopher fully reveals the theory of natural law. The law is the same for both people and gods. By this, the speaker was trying to say that the higher mind inherent in nature is responsible for actions, while human laws created through communication are a different object from nature.

Cicero believed that law is a complex science that even judicial orators could not comprehend. To improve the situation, it is necessary to use philosophical methods and theories in the study and classification of the principles of civil law. Then laws will become art.

According to Cicero, there is no justice in the world. The politician believed that on his deathbed everyone would be rewarded for their time and actions. Marcus Tullius did not recommend following the law exactly, because this leads to glaring injustice. This prompted the speaker to demand fair treatment of slaves, who are no different from hired workers.

Cicero showed his attitude towards the political system in words and deeds. After his death, Marcus Tullius published the dialogue “On Friendship” and the treatise “On Duties”, in which he shared his thoughts and what happened after the fall of the republican system in Rome. These works were disassembled into quotations after the death of Cicero, since life itself lies in them.

Personal life

Cicero's personal life turned out to be difficult. The philosopher married twice. Marcus Tullius lived into old age with his first wife, Terence. The girl came from a respected family. Terence gave birth to two children for Cicero. The girl Tullia died at a young age. Later a son, Mark, appeared. After 30 years, the marriage broke up.

At the age of 60, Cicero married again. Publius's wife was younger than her husband, but this did not interfere. The jealous girl was not satisfied with the philosopher's relationship with his daughter, so Cicero soon left the family.

There were rumors that Sister Claudia sought to marry a politician. The speaker is the eldest child in the family. Brother - Quint.

Death

After the death of Caesar, Cicero was placed on the proscription lists for constant attacks. Thus, the philosopher becomes an enemy of the state. The property was confiscated. In addition, a reward was announced for the murder or extradition to the government of Cicero.

The speaker managed to find out about what happened at the time of communication with Quint. First, Cicero and his brother went to Astura, and then wanted to stop in Macedonia. The brothers did not have time to stock up on things for such a trip. As a result, Quintus decided to stay and pack his bags, and Cicero had to move on.

Quint was unable to catch up with the politician because he was killed. Cicero hastened to escape on the ship. Later, Marcus Tullius came down to earth and began to rush about, looking for salvation. As a result, he returns to Formia, to his personal villa. Suddenly, crows appeared at the windows and pulled the cloak off the philosopher’s face. The slaves tried to help the man and carried him on a stretcher to the sea.

The killers arrived in time - the centurion Herennius and the military tribune Popillius. The worker told where Cicero was taken. Seeing this, the speaker ordered the slaves to stop. Marcus Tullius looked at the killers in his favorite pose, and then allowed himself to be killed. The philosopher was stabbed to death, his head and hands were cut off for writing speeches against Anthony.

Bibliography

• "About Finding"
• "About the speaker"
• "Construction of speech"
• "On the best kind of speakers"
• "About the State"
• "Brutus"
• "Speaker"
• Topeka
• "About friendship"
• "About responsibilities"

Quotes

• We must be slaves of the laws in order to be free.
• Oh times, oh morals!
• The face is the mirror of the soul.
• We use neither water nor fire as often as we use friendship.
• After all, one must not only master wisdom, but also be able to use it.

lat. Marcus Tullius Cicerō

Ancient Roman politician, orator and philosopher

106 - 43 BC e.

short biography

- an outstanding ancient Roman orator, politician, philosopher, writer. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Born in 106 BC. e., January 3, in the town of Arpinum. So that his sons could receive a decent education, their father moved them to Rome when Cicero was 15. The natural talent of eloquence and diligent study were not in vain: Cicero’s oratory skills did not go unnoticed.

His first public appearance took place in 81 or 80 BC. e. and was dedicated to one of the favorites of the dictator Sulla. This could have been followed by persecution, so Cicero moved to Athens, where he devoted Special attention the study of rhetoric and philosophy. When Sulla died, Cicero returned to Rome and began to act as a defense attorney at trials. In 75 BC. e. he was elected quaestor and sent to Sicily. Being an honest and fair official, he gained enormous authority among the local population, but this had virtually no effect on his reputation in Rome.

Cicero became a famous person in 70 BC. e. after participating in a high-profile trial, the so-called. Verres case. Despite all the tricks of his opponents, Cicero brilliantly coped with his mission, and thanks to his speeches, Verres, accused of extortion, had to leave the city. In 69 BC. e. Cicero was elected aedile, and 3 years later he was elected praetor. The first speech of purely political content dates back to this period. In it, he supported the law of one of the people's tribunes, who sought to ensure that Pompey received emergency powers in the war with Mithridates.

The next milestone in Cicero's political biography was his election in 63 BC. e. consul. His opponent in the elections was Catiline, who was committed to revolutionary changes and, in many ways, was a loser. While in this position, Cicero opposed a bill that proposed distributing land to the poorest citizens and creating for these purposes special commission. To win the elections of 62 BC,. Catiline hatched a plot that was successfully exposed by Cicero. His four speeches in the Senate against his opponent are considered an example of the art of eloquence. Catiline escaped and the other conspirators were executed. Cicero's influence and his fame at this time reached their apogee, he was called the father of the fatherland, but at the same time, according to Plutarch, his penchant for self-praise and constant recall of his merits in uncovering the Catiline conspiracy aroused hostility towards him and even hatred in many citizens.

During the so-called of the first triumvirate, Cicero did not succumb to the temptation to side with the allies and remained faithful to republican ideals. One of his opponents, tribune Clodius, achieved that in 58 BC. e., in April, Cicero went into voluntary exile, his house was burned and his property was confiscated. At this time, he more than once had thoughts of suicide, but soon Pompey ensured that Cicero was returned from exile.

Returning home, Cicero did not actively participate in political life, preferring literature and legal practice. In 55 BC. e. his dialogue “On the Orator” appears, and a year later he begins to work on the work “On the State”. During the civil war, the orator tried to act as a reconciliator between Caesar and Pompey, but he considered the rise of either of them to power to be a disastrous outcome for the state. Having taken the side of Pompey, after the battle of Forsal (48 BC) he did not command his army and moved to Brundisium, where he met with Caesar. Despite the fact that he forgave him, Cicero, not ready to come to terms with the dictatorship, delved into his writings and translations, and into his creative biography This time turned out to be the busiest.

In 44 BC. e., after Caesar was killed, Cicero made an attempt to return to big politics, believing that the state still had a chance to return the republic. In the confrontation between Mark Antony and Caesar's heir Octavian, Cicero sided with the latter, seeing him as an easier target for influence. The 14 speeches made against Anthony went down in history as philippics. After Octavian came to power, Antony managed to include Cicero in the list of enemies of the people, and on December 7, 43 BC. e. he was killed near Caieta.

The creative legacy of the speaker has survived to this day in the form of 58 speeches of judicial and political content, 19 treatises on politics and rhetoric, philosophy, as well as more than 800 letters. All his works are a valuable source of information about several dramatic pages in the history of Rome.

Biography from Wikipedia

Marcus Tullius Cicero(lat. Marcus Tullius Cicerō; January 3, 106 BC, Arpinum - December 7, 43 BC, Formia) - ancient Roman politician, orator and philosopher. Coming from a humble family, he made a brilliant career thanks to his oratorical talent: he entered the Senate no later than 73 BC. e. and became consul in 63 BC. e. He played a key role in uncovering and defeating the Catiline conspiracy. Later, in the conditions of civil wars, he remained one of the most prominent and most consistent supporters of the preservation of the republican system. He was executed by members of the second triumvirate, who sought unlimited power.

Cicero left an extensive literary heritage, a significant part of which has survived to this day. His works already in ancient times received a reputation as standard in terms of style, and now they are the most important source of information about all aspects of life in Rome in the 1st century BC. e. Cicero's numerous letters became the basis for European epistolary culture; his speeches, especially the Catilinarian speeches, are among the most outstanding examples of the genre. Cicero's philosophical treatises represent a unique exposition of the entirety of ancient Greek philosophy intended for Latin-speaking readers, and in this sense they played an important role in the history of ancient Roman culture.

Origin

Marcus Tullius Cicero was the eldest son of a Roman horseman of the same name, whose poor health did not allow him to make a career, and his wife Helvia - “a woman of good birth and impeccable life.” His brother was Quintus, with whom Marcus Tullius maintained a close relationship throughout his life, and his cousin was Lucius Tullius Cicero, who accompanied his cousin on his journey to the East in 79 BC. e.

The Tullian family belonged to the aristocracy of Arpin, a small town in the Volscian lands in the south of Latium, whose inhabitants had held Roman citizenship since 188 BC. e. This is also where Gaius Marius came from, who was related to the Tullians: Cicero’s grandfather was married to Gratidia, whose brother married his sister Maria. Thus, Gaius’s nephew Marcus Marius Gratidianus was Cicero’s great-uncle, and Cicero’s great-aunt Gratidia was married to Lucius Sergius Catilina.

It is unknown from what time Tullii wore the cognomen Cicero (Cicero). Plutarch claims that this family nickname came from the word “chickpeas” and that Cicero’s friends at the time when he was just beginning his career advised him to replace this name with something more euphonious; Marcus Tullius rejected this advice, saying that he would make his cognomen sound louder than names Scaurus And Catulus.

early years

When the future orator turned 15 years old (91 BC), his father, who dreamed of a political career for his sons, moved with his family to Rome to give the boys a good education.

Wanting to become a judicial orator, young Mark studied the works of Greek poets, was interested in Greek literature, studied eloquence from the famous orators Mark Antony and Lucius Licinius Crassus, and also listened to Publius Sulpicius speaking at the forum. The orator needed to know Roman law, and Cicero studied it with the prominent lawyer of the time, Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex. Having an excellent command of the Greek language, Cicero became acquainted with Greek philosophy thanks to his closeness with the Epicurean Phaedrus of Athens, the Stoic Diodorus Cronus and the head of the New Academic School Philo. From the latter, Marcus Tullius also studied dialectics - the art of dispute and argumentation.

During the Allied War that soon began, Cicero served in the army of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In 89 BC. e. he witnessed the omen that preceded Sulla's victory at Nola, and the meeting of the consul Gnaeus Pompey Strabo with the Mars Vettius Scato. Then, in the conditions of hostility between the Marian and Sullan parties, Cicero “turned to a quiet and contemplative life,” studying philosophy, rhetoric and law. This continued until the final victory of the Sullans in 82 BC. e.; Moreover, Cicero himself later claimed that he was on the side of Sulla.

Beginning of a speaker's career

The first surviving speech by Cicero, written in 81 BC. e., “In Defense of Quinctius,” the purpose of which was the return of illegally seized property, brought the speaker his first success.

The speaker achieved even greater success with his speech “In Defense of Russia,” in which he was forced to talk about the state of affairs in the state, where, in his words, “they have forgotten how not only to forgive offenses, but also to investigate crimes.” This difficult case of a modest native of the province of Russia, unfairly accused by relatives of the murder of his own father, was in fact a lawsuit between representatives of the ancient Roman families, who had lost their influence under the Sullan regime, and the rootless henchmen of the dictator. Cicero personally visited Ameria and investigated the circumstances of the crime on the spot, after which he asked the court for 108 days to prepare the trial.

Already in the process of Roscius, Cicero showed himself to be a talented student of the Greeks and the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, from whom the young orator was educated in Rome. Cicero's speech was structured according to all the rules of oratory - with complaints about the youth and inexperience of the defense attorney, exhortations to the judges, direct speeches on behalf of the accused, as well as a refutation of the prosecution's arguments. In debunking the claims of the accuser Gaius Erucius, who was trying to prove that Roscius was a parricide, Cicero resorted to the Greek art of atopoeia, which relied on the characteristics of the accused who could not have committed such a terrible act:

Sextus Roscius killed his father. - “What kind of person is he? A spoiled youth, trained by scoundrels? - “Yes, he is over forty years old.” “Then, of course, he was prompted to commit this crime by extravagance, huge debts and uncontrollable passions.” Erutius acquitted him of the charge of extravagance, saying that he had hardly attended even one feast. He never had any debts. As for passions, what passions can a person have who, as the accuser himself stated, has always lived in the countryside, engaged in agriculture? After all, such a life is very far from passions and teaches a sense of duty.

Cicero. In defense of Sextus Roscius of Ameria, XIV, 39..

The importance of the Roscius case lay in the fact that, according to Cicero, “after a long interval,” for the first time, “a murder trial took place, and meanwhile during this time the most vile and monstrous murders were committed.” So the defender hinted at the events of the civil war of 83-82. BC e. and Sullan repressions directed against all those who disagreed with the dictatorial regime. The father of the accused, a very rich man at that time, his distant relatives, resorting to the help of Sulla’s influential favorite Cornelius Chrysogonus, tried to add him to the proscription lists after the murder was committed, and, having sold the property for next to nothing, distributed it among themselves. The fulfillment of the plans of the “dishonorable insolent people,” as Cicero calls them, was hindered by the legal heir, whom they tried to accuse of parricide. That is why in this case the defense lawyer does not speak so much about the innocence of the accused (it is obvious to everyone), but rather exposes the greed of criminals who profit from the deaths of fellow citizens, and those who use connections to conceal crimes. Cicero addresses the judges not with flattery, but with the demand “to punish atrocities perhaps more severely, perhaps to more boldly rebuff the most insolent people”: “If you do not show in this court case what your views are, then greed, crime and insolence can go so far , which is not only secret, but even here in the forum, at your feet, judges, murders will take place right between the benches.”

The trial was won, and the speaker gained great popularity among the people due to his opposition to the local aristocracy. But, fearing Sulla's revenge, Cicero went to Athens and the island of Rhodes for two years, allegedly due to the need for a deeper study of philosophy and oratory. There he again studied with Molon, who later had a strong influence on Cicero's style - from that time on, the orator began to adhere to the “middle” style of eloquence, which combined a number of elements of the Asian and moderate Attic styles.

In 78 BC. e., shortly after the death of Sulla, Cicero returned to Rome. Here he married Terence, who belonged to noble family(this marriage brought him a dowry of 120 thousand drachmas), and continued his judicial oratorical practice.

Beginning of political activity

In 75 BC. e. Cicero was elected quaestor and received an appointment to Sicily, where he supervised the export of grain during a period of grain shortage in Rome. With his justice and honesty, he earned the respect of the Sicilians, but in Rome his successes were practically unnoticed. Plutarch describes his return to the capital as follows:

In Campania he met a prominent Roman, whom he considered his friend, and Cicero, confident that Rome was full of glory for his name and deeds, asked how the citizens judged his actions. “Wait a minute, Cicero, where have you been lately?” - he heard in response, and immediately completely lost heart, for he realized that the rumor about him was lost in the city, as if it had sunk into a boundless sea, without adding anything to his former fame.

Plutarch. Cicero, 6..

For Marcus Tullius, the quaestura meant entry into the senatorial class. By October 14, 73 BC. e. refers to his very first mention as a senator. In subsequent years, Cicero took part in a number of trials, achieved recognition in the Senate, and in 70 BC. e. without much difficulty he took the position of aedile, which was the next step in his career after the quest.

In August 70 BC. e. Cicero made a series of speeches against the propraetor of Sicily, a former supporter of Sulla, Gaius Licinius Verres, who during three years of his governorship (73 - 71 BC) plundered the province and executed many of its inhabitants. The matter was complicated by the fact that Cicero’s opponent supported by many influential nobles, including both consuls next year(Hortensius, the famous orator who agreed to act as a defender at the trial, and Verres’ friend Quintus Metellus), as well as the chairman of the court, praetor Marcus Metellus.

Guy Verres has said more than once ... that there is an influential man behind him, relying on whom he can plunder the province, and he collects money not only for himself; that he distributed the income from his three-year praetorship in Sicily as follows: he will be very pleased if he manages to turn the income of the first year to his advantage; he will transfer the income of the second year to his patrons and defenders; the income of the third year, the most profitable and promising the greatest profits, he will completely reserve for the judges.

Cicero. Against Guy Verres (first session), XIV, 40..

But Cicero nevertheless took up the cause against corruption at all levels of government and won. His speeches written for this trial were of enormous political importance, since in essence Cicero opposed the Senate oligarchy and won a triumphant victory over it: the speaker’s arguments in favor of Verres’ guilt turned out to be so indisputable that the famous Hortensius refused to defend the defendant. Verres was forced to pay a large fine of 40 million sesterces and go into exile.

Meanwhile, Cicero's political career continued: he was elected praetor in 66 BC. e., and received the most votes, and during the administration of this position gained a reputation as a skillful and impeccably honest judge. At the same time, he continued to practice law, and also made a speech “On the appointment of Gnaeus Pompey as commander,” in which he supported the bill of Gaius Manilius to grant Gnaeus Pompey the Great unlimited powers in the fight against the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator. As a result, Pompey gained extraordinary power in the war, and the interests of the Roman equestrians and senators in the East were protected.

The Consulate and the Catiline Conspiracy

In 63 BC. e. Cicero was elected to the post of consul, winning a landslide victory in the elections - even before the final count of votes. His colleague was Guy Antony Hybrida, who was associated with the aristocratic camp.

At the beginning of his consulate, Cicero had to deal with the agrarian law proposed by the people's tribune Servilius Rull. The bill provided for the distribution of land to the poorest citizens and the establishment of a special commission for this purpose, vested with serious powers. Cicero opposed this initiative, making three speeches; as a result, the law was not passed.

One of the losing candidates for consul in 63 BC. e. Lucius Sergius Catilina also put forward his candidacy for the elections of '62. Assuming failure this time too, he began to prepare in advance a conspiracy to seize power, which Cicero managed to uncover. Already with the first of his four speeches against Catiline, considered examples of oratory, Cicero forced Lucius Sergius to flee from Rome to Etruria. In the ensuing meeting of the Senate, which he led, it was decided to arrest and execute without trial those conspirators (Lentulus, Cethegus, Statilius, Gabinius and Ceparius) who remained in Rome, since they posed too great a threat to the state and the usual measures in such cases - house arrest or exile would not be effective enough. Julius Caesar, who was present at the meeting, opposed the execution, but Cato, with his speech, which not only exposed the guilt of the conspirators, but also listed the suspicions that fell on Caesar himself, convinced the senators of the need for a death sentence. The convicts were taken to prison that same day and strangled there.

During this period, Cicero's fame and influence reached their peak; praising his decisive actions, Cato called him “the father of the fatherland.” But at the same time, Plutarch writes:

Many became imbued with hostility and even hatred towards him - not for any bad deed, but only because he endlessly praised himself. Neither the Senate, nor the people, nor the judges managed to gather and disperse without hearing once again the old song about Catiline... he filled his books and writings with boasts, and his speeches, always so euphonious and enchanting, became torment for the listeners.

Plutarch. Cicero, 24..

Exile

In 60 BC. e. Caesar, Pompey and Crassus joined forces to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. Recognizing Cicero's talents and popularity, they made several attempts to win him over to their side. Cicero hesitated and refused, preferring to remain loyal to the Senate and the ideals of the Republic. But this left him open to attacks from opponents, including the tribune of the people Clodius, who had disliked Cicero since the orator testified against him at his trial.

Clodius sought the adoption of a law that would condemn him to exile executive, which executed a Roman citizen without trial. The law was directed primarily against Cicero. Cicero turned to Pompey and other influential people for support, but did not receive it. At the same time, he himself writes that he refused the help of Caesar, who first offered him his friendship, then an embassy to Alexandria, then the position of legate in his army in Gaul; the reason for the refusal was the reluctance to flee from danger. According to Plutarch, Cicero himself asked Caesar for the position of legate, received it, and then refused it because of Clodius’ feigned friendliness.

Sources note Cicero’s cowardly behavior after the adoption of the law: he humbly asked for help from the consul Piso and Pomeus, and even threw himself at the latter’s feet. Dressed in poor and dirty clothes, he pestered random passers-by on the streets of Rome, even those who did not know him at all. Finally, in April 58 BC. e. Cicero still had to go into exile and leave Italy. After this, his property was confiscated and his houses were burned. The expulsion had an extremely depressing effect on Cicero: he even thought about suicide.

In September 57 BC. e. Pompey took a harder line towards Clodius; he drove the tribune from the forum and achieved the return of Cicero from exile with the help of Titus Annius Milo. Cicero's house and estates were rebuilt at the expense of the treasury. Nevertheless, Marcus Tullius found himself in a difficult position: he owed his return primarily to Pompey personally, and the power of the Senate was significantly weakened against the backdrop of open battles between supporters of Milo and Clodius and the strengthening of the positions of the triumvirs. Cicero had to accept the actual patronage of the latter and make speeches in their support, while bemoaning the situation of the republic.

Gradually, Cicero withdrew from active political life and devoted himself to legal and literary activities. In 55 he wrote the dialogue “On the Orator”, in 54 he began work on the essay “On the State”.

Viceroyalty in Cilicia and civil war

In 51 BC. e. Cicero was appointed by lot as governor of Cilicia. He went to his province with great reluctance and in letters to friends often wrote about his longing for Rome; nevertheless, he ruled successfully: he put an end to the rebellion of the Cappadocians without resorting to weapons, and also defeated the robber tribes of Aman, for which he received the title of “emperor.”

In Rome, at the time of the return of Marcus Tullius, the confrontation between Caesar and Pompey was intensifying. For a long time, Cicero did not want to take sides (“I love Curio, I wish honor to Caesar, I am ready to die for Pompey, but the Republic is dearer to me than anything in the world!”) and put a lot of effort into reconciling opponents, since he understood that in the event of a civil war, the republican system will be doomed regardless of who wins. “Out of victory will grow many evils, and above all a tyrant.”

“He turned to both with advice - he sent letter after letter to Caesar, he persuaded and begged Pompey at every opportunity - trying to soften mutual bitterness. But trouble was inevitable.” In the end, without much desire, Cicero became a supporter of Pompey, following, in his words, honest people like a bull following a herd.

Pompey instructed Marcus Tullius to recruit troops in Campania along with the consuls, but the latter did not show up; Disappointed in Pompey's leadership talent and shocked by his intention to leave Italy, Cicero went to his estate in Formia and decided to refuse to participate in the civil war. Caesar tried to win him over to his side: he sent Cicero “ingratiating letters,” and in the spring of 49 BC. e. even visited him. But Caesar's retinue shocked Cicero. When Caesar went with the army to Spain, Marcus Tullius decided to still join Pompey, although he saw that he was losing the war. He wrote to Atticus about this: “I never wanted to be a part of his victory, but I want to share in his misfortune.” In June 49, Cicero joined Pompey in Epirus.

Sources say that in the Pompeian camp, Cicero, always sullen, mocked everyone, including the commander. After the Battle of Pharsalus, when the defeated Pompey fled to Egypt, Cato offered Cicero, as consular, command of the army and fleet stationed in Dyrrhachium. He, completely disappointed, refused and, after a skirmish with Pompey the Younger and other military leaders who accused him of treason, moved to Brundisium. Here he spent almost a year until Caesar returned from the Egyptian and Asian campaigns; then their meeting and reconciliation took place. “From then on, Caesar treated Cicero with unfailing respect and friendliness.” Nevertheless, Cicero left politics, unable to come to terms with the dictatorship, and began writing and translating philosophical treatises from Greek.

Opposition to Mark Antony and death

Assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. e. came as a complete surprise to Cicero and made him very happy: he decided that with the death of the dictator, the republic could be restored. But his hopes of creating a republican government did not come true. Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave Italy, and in Rome the position of the Caesarian Mark Antony, who hated Cicero, sharply strengthened - largely due to the fact that eighteen years earlier he had achieved extrajudicial reprisal against his stepfather Lentulus, a supporter of Catiline.

For some time, Cicero planned to leave for Greece. He changed his mind and returned to Rome, having learned that Antony had expressed his readiness to cooperate with the Senate, but the very next day after his return (September 1, 44) an open conflict occurred. On September 2, Cicero delivered a speech directed against Anthony and called by the author “philippic” by analogy with the speeches of Demosthenes against the strengthening of Philip of Macedon. In his response, Antony declared the involvement of Mark Tullius in the murder of Caesar, in the massacre of Catiline's supporters, in the murder of Clodius and in provoking discord between Caesar and Pompey. After these events, Cicero began to fear for his life and retired to his estate in Campania, starting to compose the second philippic, the treatises “On Duties” and “On Friendship”.

The second Philippika was published at the end of November. Anthony left for Cisalpine Gaul, his assigned province, and Cicero became the de facto head of the republic. He entered into an alliance against Antony with Decimus Junius Brutus, who refused to hand over Gaul to him, with both consuls (former Caesarians) and with Caesar's heir Octavian. Already on December 20, Cicero pronounced the third and fourth Philippics, where he compared Anthony with Catiline and Spartacus.

Being confident of victory, Cicero was unable to foresee the alliance of Octavian with the already defeated Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and the formation of the second triumvirate (in the fall of 43 BC). The triumvirs' troops occupied Rome, and Antony ensured that Cicero's name was included in the proscription lists of "enemies of the people", which the triumvirs published immediately after the formation of the alliance.

Cicero tried to escape to Greece, but the assassins overtook him on December 7, 43 BC. e. near his villa in Formia. When Cicero noticed the killers catching up with him, he ordered the slaves carrying him to place the palanquin on the ground, and then, sticking his head out from behind the curtain, put his neck under the centurion’s sword. Cicero’s severed head and hands were delivered to Anthony and then placed on the oratorical platform of the forum. According to legend, Antony's wife Fulvia stuck pins into the tongue of the dead head, and then, as Plutarch says, “they ordered the head and hands to be placed on the oratorical dais, above the ship’s bows, to the horror of the Romans, who thought they saw not the face of Cicero, but the image of Anthony's soul..."

Cicero's views

Philosophical views

Cicero is often denied credibility as a philosopher, reducing his contribution only to a successful compilation of the conclusions of Greek philosophical schools for the Roman reader. The reasons for this attitude are the general critical attitude towards Cicero, which spread in the historiography of the 19th century, and the self-deprecating statements of Marcus Tullius himself, who denied the significance of his contribution to philosophical treatises (perhaps this was self-irony). A certain role was also played by Cicero’s deliberate refusal to make categorical judgments, caused by his acceptance of the teachings of skeptical philosophers. This manner contradicted the strict style of philosophizing, the fashion for which has spread in philosophy since the New Age.

Thanks to his good preparation, Cicero was well acquainted with the main philosophical trends of his time. Cicero considered Plato the greatest philosopher of all time, and Aristotle second after him. At the same time, he recognized the excessive abstractness of Plato's philosophy. Of the more modern philosophical movements, Marcus Tullius was closest to the Stoics, whose ethical teaching was in good agreement with the traditional Roman worldview. His attitude towards popular Epicureanism was generally negative. Nevertheless, he had a good attitude towards the founder of this doctrine. Acquaintance with Greek philosophy was not limited to classical and new movements: Cicero was also familiar with the ideas of the Pre-Socratics. However, it is possible that not all quotations in his works may indicate familiarity with the primary sources, since Cicero could have borrowed them from later review works. The extent of Cicero's dependence on predecessors is unclear, since many potential sources have not survived. According to the most radical point of view, which recognized the lack of independence of the Roman author, the source for each of Cicero’s works was a single Greek treatise. V. F. Asmus believes that Cicero also has works written without major borrowings from Greek treatises, but because of this, errors, inaccuracies and contradictions often arose in them.

Since Cicero did not strive to build a comprehensive philosophical concept, he finds it difficult to give a definitive answer on a number of key questions of being and knowledge. In general, Cicero's views are characterized as moderate skepticism in basic philosophical issues, with significant influence of Stoic ideas in ethics and political theory. At the same time, it is emphasized that the skepticism of the Roman author was not an end in itself, but was of a purely applied nature: by comparing different points of view, he sought to get closer to the truth. G. G. Mayorov characterizes Cicero’s philosophical platform as “naturalistic monism with some deviations towards platonic idealism.”

Important merits of Cicero are the adaptation of the ancient Greek philosophical heritage to the conditions of the ancient Roman mentality and, especially, the presentation of philosophy in Latin. Marcus Tullius himself attributed primacy in the creation of philosophical works in Latin to Varro. Cicero contributed to the development of Latin philosophical terminology, introducing a number of new terms into circulation (for example, definitio- definition, progressus- progress). Unlike Titus Lucretius Carus, who created the philosophical poem, he chose a more traditional, prosaic method of transmitting philosophical knowledge. Despite numerous references to Plato's dialogues, the main form of Cicero's treatises was the exchange of long speeches, most characteristic of Aristotle's dialogues and only some of Plato's works. The abundance of large texts with a complex structure corresponded to the rhetorical inclinations of Marcus Tullius and allowed him to fully realize his literary talents. The influence of the encyclopedic method of presentation, characteristic of all Roman scientific literature, also had an impact.

The skepticism adopted by Cicero, which recognized the existence of different points of view and allowed the conclusions of different philosophical schools to be borrowed, became the theoretical basis for political and, to a lesser extent, rhetorical treatises.

Political Views. Theory of law

Cicero's political and legal ideas are considered a valuable contribution to the theory of state and law. At the same time, Cicero is one of the few political thinkers who succeeded in practical political activity. Although there is a widespread view in historiography about Cicero’s duplicity, S. L. Utchenko believes that Cicero’s treatises develop and provide theoretical justification for the same views that he always expressed in his public speeches - in particular, the slogans of “harmony of estates” used in his speeches ( concordia ordinum) and “the consent of all well-intentioned” ( consensus bonorum omnium). Both slogans were apparently coined by Cicero himself. Marcus Tullius defended the idea of ​​the importance of studying philosophy for statesmen, and considered the study of philosophy during a forced withdrawal from politics as an alternative to political activity.

Like all of Cicero's philosophy, his political ideas draw heavily on Greek thought. However, the author considers primarily the Roman specifics of the state and constantly focuses on the experience of Roman history. Moreover, he sets himself a very clear task - to justify the special mission of the Roman Republic. Cicero seeks to contrast Rome with the Greek policies, which is manifested, for example, in emphasizing, following Cato the Elder, the gradual formation of the Roman constitution in contrast to the Greeks, whose policies received basic laws from one person (Solon in Athens, Lycurgus in Sparta, etc.). He also discusses the advantages of founding a city not on the usual Greek coast, but at some distance from the sea, and defends the advantages of the Roman elective monarchy over inheriting the title from the Spartan kings.

On the question of the origin of state and law, the most important influence on Cicero was Plato, Aristotle, the Stoic philosophers, as well as Panaetius and Polybius. Cicero's views on the origins of the state changed over time - from recognizing the importance of rhetoric in unification primitive people against wild animals in early writings before the subsequent adoption of Aristotle's view of the inherent desire of people to live together. Marcus Tullius distinguishes several types of communities, and the closest of them he recognizes is the unification of people within one civil community ( civitas). Cicero's famous definition of the state ( res publica) as “the property of the people” ( res populi) departs from the patterns adopted in Greek political thought:

The state is the property of the people, and the people are not any union of people gathered together in any way, but a union of many people connected by agreement in matters of law and community of interests (Cicero. On the State, I, XXV, 39).

Original text(lat.)
Est igitur... res publica res populi, populus autem non omnis hominum coetus quoquo modo congregatus, sed coetus multitudinis iuris consensu et utilitatis communione sociatus.

Marcus Tullius repeats the three-part classification of forms common in ancient times government structure(in the Greek tradition - democracy, aristocracy, monarchy, in Cicero - civitas popularis, civitas optimatium, regnum), borrows the idea of ​​the gradual degeneration of all these forms into their opposite and, following his predecessors, recognizes the absence of the only correct form devices from the three listed. The ideal form of government, again following Greek political thought, he considers a mixed constitution that combines the advantages of the three “pure” forms, but does not have their disadvantages. At the same time, Cicero joins Polybius, who saw in the Roman Republic the embodiment of a mixed state system, and thereby refuses to follow Plato, who described a fictitious ideal state. It is assumed that the refusal to create utopian projects and praise foreign customs while idealizing one's own ancient history was well in line with the traditional Roman worldview. The Roman author goes further than Polybius and admits that the Roman state can exist forever. Cicero comes to the conclusion that the most important advantage of a mixed constitution is not just the stability of the state structure (this is the opinion of Polybius), but also the possibility of ensuring “great equality”, which three classic shapes the board cannot offer. The disadvantages of the three “pure” forms, according to Polybius, boil down to their instability, but for Cicero, their no less important disadvantage is the inability to ensure justice.

In the fragmentarily preserved fifth book of the treatise “On the State,” Cicero develops the idea of ​​the Roman Republic’s need for a leader who would be able to peacefully resolve the contradictions that arose. This idea is often seen as the ideological preparation of the Principate, although it is noted that the system of power built by the first princeps Octavian Augustus did not correspond to the views of the staunch republican Cicero. However, one of the basic provisions of Cicero - the need for a supra-class leader, standing above the interests of individuals, political societies and social groups - was used by Octavian to justify his power. The political meaning that Cicero put into the concept of a supra-class leader (Cicero called it by different terms - rector rei publicae, tutor et moderator rei publicae, princeps, and some differences between these designations are allowed), remains a subject of debate in historiography. The solution to this issue is complicated by the fragmentary preservation of the last two books of the treatise “On the State”: only fragments have survived to this day in which the participants in the dialogue discuss the qualities that one should have rector, and his duties, but not his rights and powers. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, a version spread that with his work Cicero was preparing a theoretical justification for a form of government close to a constitutional monarchy. S. L. Utchenko joins the point of view of J. Vogt, who criticizes the monarchical interpretation of Cicero’s words, and sees in the leader he described an aristocrat acting within the framework of republican institutions. A similar point of view is shared, for example, by P. Grimal, according to whom Marcus Tullius saw in the described leader not a full-fledged monarch, but primarily a mediator in resolving disputes. It is unclear whether Cicero could have had in mind a specific person suitable for the role of an ideal ruler ( rector) - Gnaeus Pompey, himself, or his thoughts did not claim immediate practical implementation. G. Benario believes that Cicero’s concept of the ideal ruler optionally complements the Roman mixed constitution and is not an integral part of it, although this point of view is not always shared.

In his political theory, Cicero proceeds from the concept of the cycles of life and death of individual states, known in ancient times. The question of the predetermination of the decline of states remained unresolved, but ancient thinkers saw the two most obvious answers to this question - either states are doomed to destruction, or a state with ideal laws can exist forever. Cicero's skepticism about fate and supernatural predestination led him to search for ideal laws.

In his treatise On Laws, Cicero develops the theory of natural law ( ius naturale in a broad sense, ratio naturale), according to which there is a “natural law” common to people and gods. With its help, people distinguish lawlessness from right and evil from good. He defines this law (in a broad sense) as “the highest reason inherent in nature, commanding us to do what we should do and prohibiting the opposite” ( lex est ratio summa, insita in natura, quae iubet ea quae facienda sunt, prohibetque contraria). The origin of human laws, which he distinguishes from natural law, the Roman author considers to be the result of a social contract. According to Cicero, the imperfection of people leads to the fact that they often adopt imperfect and unjust laws. There are three main views on the relationship between natural and human laws in Cicero. The first and most traditional approach assumes that the connections between them are the same as between Plato's ideas and their earthly reflections (things): the laws of people can only approach the ideal laws of nature. The second approach considers the ideas expressed by Cicero as the development of abstract laws of nature. The third approach, proposed in the 1980s by C. Girardet, asserts the identity of both types of laws. Following the early Roman jurists, Cicero singles out ius gentium(the law of nations), which he places above ius civile(civil law, that is, the rights of individual communities, including Rome)

By the 1st century BC. e. The development of Roman law led to the accumulation of numerous, unsystematized sources of law. Because of the difficulty of studying law, Cicero complained, even some judicial orators did not understand legal issues. He saw the solution to this problem as developing an introduction to law using a philosophical apparatus to classify the basic principles of civil law, which would make it possible to streamline disparate definitions and turn law into art. E.M. Shtaerman suggests that by the era of Cicero, some foundations of the theory of law had already appeared in the Roman Republic, but only hints of their existence have survived to this day. Book III of the treatise “On the Laws” examines some of the basic provisions of the structure of the Roman magistrates, which K. Case compares with constitutions modern states, while noting the uniqueness of such a vault in the ancient era.

Noting that justice is not very common on Earth, Cicero describes the “dream of Scipio” in book VI of the treatise “On the State,” putting forward the idea of ​​posthumous reward for a just life. Marcus Tullius warned against following the letter of the law too closely, as this could lead to injustice. Based on his conclusions about natural law and justice, Cicero demands fair treatment of slaves, proposing to treat them in the same way as hired workers.

Views on rhetoric, literature and history

Cicero wrote several rhetorical works in which he spoke on various issues of the theory and practice of public speaking. He interpreted rhetoric very broadly, which was caused by the ancient tradition of reading written works out loud.

The main provisions of Cicero’s views on rhetoric are contained in the treatises “On the Orator” (mostly the ideas of Cicero himself are voiced by Lucius Crassus), “Orator”; specific issues are discussed in “Topika”, “On the Construction of Speech”, “Brutus” and the early work “On finding material." The reason why Marcus Tullius often expressed his own views on the qualities of an ideal speaker was his dissatisfaction with the modern state of rhetorical education, which is focused on highly specialized tasks. Although the ideal described by Cicero, in accordance with Plato’s philosophy, was unattainable, the Roman author considered the task of beginning orators to be closer to this model.

According to Cicero, the ideal speaker should be a well-rounded person. In addition to the theory of rhetoric, he is required to know the basics of philosophy, civil law, and history. This was due to the Roman author's critical attitude towards the pompous but meaningless speeches that spread in his era. He also requires from the speaker sincere concern for the subject of his speech and a good sense of tact: “How inappropriate it would be to talk about gutters<…>, use pompous words and commonplaces, and talk lowly and simply about the greatness of the Roman people!” Cicero considers various rhetorical figures, but advises against overusing them. The Roman author writes about the need for consistency to form a holistic flavor of each performance. He also knows that over time pompous speeches become boring, but he does not delve into the search for the reasons for this phenomenon. Cicero believes that archaic words used successfully and in moderation give dignity to speech. At the same time, he considers it possible to form neologisms from roots that are understandable to listeners. Of the main means of expression, he considers metaphor and various comparisons to be the most important, although he warns that one should not get carried away with them and warns against choosing too unnatural metaphors. Following rhetoric textbooks, he advised practicing reasoning and suggested choosing philosophical topics for them. Cicero paid a lot of attention to issues of pronunciation. As an exemplary reprimand, he recommends paying attention to the speech of elderly Roman women, which was distinguished by its particular purity and sophistication. Marcus Tullius demands to avoid dissonant combinations of sounds and carefully observe the rhythm of speech. In his later works, he actively polemicizes with the Atticist speakers who were gaining popularity, who chose as a model emphasized minimalism in matters of stylistic finishing of speeches.

Cicero also expresses his thoughts regarding the structure of public speeches. For judicial and political speeches, he suggests different features structures. For all types of speeches, however, he recommends using calm and moderate introductions without pathos or jokes, although he himself sometimes deviates from this rule (for example, in the first speech against Catiline). At the same time, in the introduction, according to Cicero, one should especially carefully monitor the rhythm of speech. Subsequent parts of the speech have their own laws. The most emotional part of the speech Cicero suggests is the conclusion ( peroratio).

In his speech for Archius, Cicero substantiates the benefits of literature for both the writer and the reader. For the Roman author, the social benefits of literature (in particular, the glorification of the deeds of great people of the past and present) are extremely important, which is why he speaks of the high social prestige of writers and poets. Separately, Cicero spoke about the role of the literary and poetic gift. In his opinion, existing talent needs to be developed, and relying only on natural abilities is unacceptable. The Roman author's views on poetry were very conservative: he supported the old traditions of versification, dating back to Ennius, and criticized the modernist poets (one of these, as Cicero put it, “idle” poets was Catullus). He reproached the latter for the fact that poetry had become a goal for them, and not a means of glorifying their homeland and educating their fellow citizens, criticized their choice of subjects divorced from life and attacked their artificially complicated lyrics. Cicero valued epic poetry most highly, he placed tragedy a little lower, and of the authors he especially valued Ennius and the masters of psychologism, whom he was ready to forgive even flaws in style. There are opposing opinions about the role of Cicero in the history of Latin poetry.

Cicero on the principles that should guide the historian

“Who doesn’t know that the first law of history is not to allow lies under any circumstances; then - under no circumstances be afraid of the truth; not allow a shadow of partiality or a shadow of malice.”

Cicero repeatedly spoke out on the issue of the principles of describing history, which he considered a type of oratory. Marcus Tullius called for writing historical works primarily about recent events, without delving into the antiquity valued by annalistic historians. Cicero demanded that the historian not limit himself to a simple listing of acts, considering it necessary to describe the intentions of the characters, cover in detail the specifics of the development of events and consider their consequences. He urged historians not to overuse the rhetorical design of their works and believed that the style of historical works should be calm. At the same time, notes S. L. Utchenko, Cicero himself hardly followed his own recommendations in the history of his consulate (this work has not survived), and therefore considers the demands he voiced on the historian only a tribute to tradition.

Religious views

Cicero devoted three treatises to the consideration of various issues related to religion - “On the Nature of the Gods”, “On Divination” (in other translations - “On Enchantment”, “On Fortune-telling”) and “On Fate”. The first work was written under the strong influence of the teachings of the Stoic Posidonius, although the role of academic philosophers is also noticeable. Its dialogical structure determines the absence of clear conclusions: the participants in the dialogue exchange opinions, but Cicero does not indicate his own point of view. The treatise “On Divination” was constructed according to a slightly different scheme. Unlike other philosophical works, Cicero portrays himself as an active participant in the dialogue and expresses a number of categorical thoughts on the topic under consideration. This allows us to establish his own views, which, however, are influenced by Clitomachus, who expounds the teachings of Carneades, and Panaetius. In this work, he departs from the traditional proximity to Stoic philosophy, sharply criticizing their teaching about fate and predictions. Cicero also criticizes the ethical function of religion: he does not consider fear of supernatural retribution to be an effective motivator. When considering the problem of the origin of evil (theodicy), which appeared despite the good intentions of the creator gods, Cicero criticized the Stoic views on this issue. However, he does not try to refute the theoretical foundations of the teachings of the Stoics, but only appealed to historical examples when noble people died and bad people ruled. From this he concluded that the gods were indifferent to both good and evil people. He considered the Stoic argument about reason as a tool for distinguishing good from evil to be untenable, recognizing the correctness of Aristotle’s idea of ​​the “neutrality” of reason and pointing to man’s regular use of reason to the detriment of himself and other people. Finally, with the help of sophisms and techniques drawn from the practice of law, Cicero brings the point of view of the Stoics to the point of absurdity, proving that Providence endowed man with reason not at all with good, but with evil intentions.

In his writings, Cicero distinguished organized religion ( religion) from superstition ( superstitio). The distinction between the two concepts, however, was not made clearly enough by Cicero. In his treatise On the Nature of the Gods, Cicero defined religion. In the first book of this work, he writes that religion “consists in the pious worship of the gods” (lat. religionem, quae deorum cultu pio continetur), in the second he casually throws in a clarification: “[in relation to] religion, that is, the worship of the gods” (lat. religione, id est cultu deorum). Cicero’s definition is not new and goes back to the concept of “worship of the gods” (ancient Greek τιμή θεῶν) used by Homer and Hesiod. He tries to explain the difference between the two terms through the “folk etymologies” of both words, emphasizing the initially positive connotation of the meaning of the word “religion” and the negative connotation of “superstition”.

Cicero criticized popular superstitions, but defended religious cults closely associated with them. At the same time, notes E. A. Berkova, the Roman author’s defense of organized religion partly contradicts his own reasoning. Cicero believes that fortune telling, which was very popular in ancient times, is based on chance and therefore cannot serve as proof of the existence of gods. He compares fortunetellers with doctors: although they all base their knowledge on experience, the doctor proceeds in his actions from reasonable grounds, and the fortuneteller cannot explain the connection between the appearance of the entrails of sacrificial animals and future events. Marcus Tullius denies the supernatural nature of various miracles, believing that they all obey the laws of nature ( rationes naturales). Based on his experience as a member of the priestly college of augurs, he knows about the manipulation of predictions and proves that many stories that supposedly confirm the validity of fortune-telling are invented based on the ignorance of the listeners. In his opinion, the prophecies of the oracles popular in ancient times either directly deceive the petitioners or are deliberately vague. Marcus Tullius also thought about the question whether it would be better to abandon belief in the gods if all superstitions disappeared with them, although he does not develop this idea further. Despite his critical statements against superstitions, Cicero objected to the attempts of the Epicurean philosophers to eliminate all superstitions, justifying this by the need for public worship. He justified the need for the preservation of organized religion not with logical arguments, but with appeals to the interests of the state.

Cicero’s views on the existence of the gods are less obvious, since the final book of the essay “On the Nature of the Gods,” which was supposed to summarize the arguments, has not been completely preserved. As a result, various researchers do not agree on which of the participants in the dialogue expressed the point of view of Marcus Tullius himself. E. A. Berkova considers Cicero’s views close to the position of the academic philosopher Gaius Aurelius Cotta, whose speech makes up most of the first book of the treatise, and G. G. Mayorov attributes the role of the main spokesman for the author’s views to Lucilius Balbus, whose lips voiced the views of the Stoics in the second book essays. Balbus gives a number of arguments about the existence of gods and considers the idea of ​​​​the rationality of the world order. Belief in gods, according to Cicero, does not need proof, since it is a special type of belief. According to the conclusion of G. G. Mayorov, Cicero “honors not so much the gods themselves as the Roman religion.” In his opinion, Cicero doubted the existence of the gods, but was afraid to voice his thoughts openly because of the memory of the fate of Protagoras, who was expelled from Athens for publishing a treatise in which the philosopher doubted the existence of the gods. A different opinion is shared by P. Grimal, who assumes Cicero’s completely sincere belief in supernatural forces and denies attempts to present Cicero as a two-faced manipulator.

Literary heritage

Speeches

There is no consensus among researchers on the issue of the editing of speeches by Cicero, Tiro or Atticus before publication. L. Wilkinson believes that published texts of speeches very rarely coincided word for word with oral presentations, and only speakers with a phenomenal memory (for example, Hortensius) could perfectly reproduce pre-prepared speeches. From Quintilian's account it is known that Cicero recited by heart only carefully worked out introductions to speeches, as well as some key passages of the speech. The recordings of his speeches that have survived to this day were shortened by Tyrone before publication. L. Wilkinson acknowledges the existence of noticeable differences between the actually delivered speeches and the specially designed published versions, even if Cicero's speech was recorded by a stenographer, and also points out that the practice of ancient Roman legal proceedings did not allow speeches to be delivered in the form in which they have been preserved. I. M. Tronsky believes that before publication, Cicero’s speeches were subjected to quite strong literary processing. As a particularly striking example, he cites the report of Dio Cassius, as if Titus Annius Milo, while in exile in Massilia (modern Marseille), read a speech published by Cicero in his defense and exclaimed that if the speaker had delivered exactly this version of the speech, then he, Milo, he wouldn't have to eat Massilian fish right now. M.E. Grabar-Passek insists that the situation with Milo’s speech was unique due to Cicero’s intimidation during the speech. However, she acknowledges some editing of speeches before publication. I. P. Strelnikova believes that the surviving versions of Cicero’s speeches differed slightly from those actually delivered. Some published speeches (the last speeches against Verres and the second philippic) were not actually delivered at all and circulated only in written form. Speech to the Senate after returning from exile ( Post reditum in senatu) was first written and then spoken. Although most speeches were first delivered and then edited and published, the recorded versions retain the characteristics of oral speech because they were intended to be read aloud. J. Powell compares recorded speeches to scripts that need to be spoken.

Rhetorical treatises

• About the speaker;
• Brutus, or On Famous Orators;
• Speaker.

Philosophical treatises

Opera omnia, 1566

Currently, 19 treatises by Cicero are known, devoted to issues of philosophy and politics, most of which are written in the form of fictional dialogues. They are valuable because they present, in detail and without distortion, the teachings of the leading philosophical schools of the time - the Stoics, Academicians and Epicureans - which is why the Romans considered Cicero their first teacher of philosophy.

The list of treatises in chronological order looks like this:

• De re publica (About the state) - created in 54 - 51. BC e. and has been partially preserved. Fragment Scipio's Dream preserved with a commentary by Macrobius and was known in the Middle Ages.
• De legibus (About laws). Written in the form of a dialogue between Cicero himself, his brother Quintus and Atticus, and is approximately half preserved. Date of creation - late 50s BC. e.
• Paradoxa Stoicorum (Paradoxes of the Stoics). Written in 46 BC. e., preserved
• Consolatio (Comfort) - this text was written after the death of Cicero’s daughter and is mentioned by him in a letter to Atticus at the beginning of 45 BC. uh.. Was lost.
• Hortensius sive de philosophy (Hortensius, or On Philosophy) - written at the beginning of 45 BC. e. This dialogue, preserved in fragments, between Cicero, Catulus, Hortensius and Lucullus converted St. Augustine to Christianity.
• Academica priora(first edition Academicians). 45 BC e.
  • Catulus (Catulus), part 1 Academica priora, mostly lost.
  • Lucullus (Lucullus), part 2 Academica priora, preserved.
• Academic libri or Academica posteriora(second edition Academicians)
• De finibus bonorum et malorum (About the limits of good and evil) - written in June 45 BC. e. and dedicated to Brutus. Preserved.
• Tusculanae disputationes (Tusculan conversations) - 2nd half of 45 BC. e. This treatise is also dedicated to Brutus. Preserved.
• Cato Maior de Senectute (Cato the Elder, or On Old Age) - written in 45/44 BC. e. and is a dialogue between Cato the Censor, Scipio Aemilianus and Gaius Laelius the Wise, dedicated to Atticus and preserved to this day.
• Laelius de amicitia (Laelius, or About Friendship) - written in 45/44 BC. e. "friend for friend." Here Scipio Aemilianus and Laelius the Wise are talking again. The text has been preserved.
• De natura deorum (On the nature of the gods) - written in 45/44 BC. e. and dedicated to Brutus. This is a dialogue between the Stoic Quintus Lucilius Balbus, the Epicurean Gaius Velleius and the academician Gaius Aurelius Cotta. The text has been preserved.
• De divinatione (About divination (religious predictions)) - a dialogue between Cicero and his brother Quintus, written in 44 BC. e. The text has been preserved.
• De fato (About fate) - dialogue with Aulus Hirtius, written in the middle of 44 BC. e. and remained unfinished. Partially preserved.
• De gloria (About fame) - a lost treatise written in July 44 BC. e.
• De officiis (About responsibilities) - written in the autumn-winter of 44 BC. e. in the form of letters to his son Mark, who was then studying in Athens. The text has been preserved.

Letters

More than 800 letters from Cicero have survived, containing a wealth of biographical information and a wealth of valuable information about Roman society at the end of the republic.

The letters were collected in 48 - 43. BC e. Cicero's secretary Tyrone. According to J. Carcopino, all correspondence, including letters not intended for publication, was made public by order of Octavian Augustus in the late 30s BC. e. for political purposes. Letters are divided into four types:

• Letters to family members and friends (epistulae ad familiares)
• Letters to Brother Quintus (epistulae ad Quintum fratrem)
• Letters to Marcus Junius Brutus (epistulae ad M. Brutum)
• Letters to Atticus (epistulae ad Atticum).

Style

Already in ancient times, Cicero was recognized as one of the trendsetters of style in Latin prose. As a result, Cicero's language is recognized as the norm of classical Latin. Compared to the literature of the 2nd century BC. e. Cicero is distinguished by a unified grammar and uniform principles for the selection of vocabulary. Like all good orators of his time, Cicero carefully followed the important rhythm of speech in the Latin language, which is completely lost in translations.

Many features of the style of Cicero's writings varied significantly depending on the genre.

Examples of some of Cicero's rhetorical figures (using the example of the first speech against Catiline)

Rhetorical questions: " Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam furor iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabit audacia?" - "How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience? How long will you continue to mock us in your rage? To what extent will you boast of your unbridled insolence?”

Isokolon: " Nobiscum versari iam diutius non potes; non feram, non patiar, non sinam " - "You can no longer be among us; I this I will not tolerate, I will not allow, I will not allow»

Hyperbaton: " Magna dis inmortalibus habenda est atque huic ipsi Iovi Statori, antiquissimo custodi huius urbis, gratia, quod hanc tam taetram, tam horribilem tamque infestam rei publicae pestem totiens iam effugimus» - « Great should be given to the immortal gods and, in particular, to this Jupiter Stator, the most ancient guardian of our city, Gratitude for the fact that we have already been delivered so many times from such a disgusting ulcer, so terrible and so detrimental to the state.”

In judicial and political speeches, Cicero was especially careful in formatting his speeches, since they often influenced the outcome of the case. Apparently, the main goal of decorating speeches was to place emphasis on the most important details. As a result, Cicero placed the strongest arguments in support of his position at the beginning and end of the substantive part of the speech, and tried to avoid potentially unpleasant moments for the client. To diversify his speech, Cicero turned to similar cases in Roman history, told historical anecdotes, quoted Greek and Roman classics, sayings, and supplemented the presentation of the circumstances of the case with short fictional dialogues with the plaintiff or defendant. Cicero skillfully uses humor to his advantage, and in judicial speeches more often than in political ones. When proving your views ( probatio) and refuting the opponent’s theses ( refutatio) there is more rhetorical embellishment, especially in cases where the defendant’s guilt is difficult to refute. On the contrary, there are relatively few appeals to purely legal issues in judicial speeches. The appeals to the pitiful position of the accused and calls for mercy from judges, traditional for Roman judicial speeches, are often similar. Such digressions are present in almost every speech he makes. At the same time, for example, quotations from Latin and Greek classics are most numerous in those speeches in which Cicero hopes to divert attention from weak evidence. There are absolutely no quotes in political speeches. There are also differences between political speeches before the people and before the Senate. Cicero speaks more freely before senators, does not allow rhetorical appeals to the gods, and also evaluates controversial political figures - for example, the Gracchi brothers - differently than before the common people. In addition, in the Senate, the speaker often used Greek words and expressions that were understandable to the political elite, but they were not before the people. The vocabulary also differs: in some speeches there are a lot of colloquial expressions and sayings (most of them in political invective), in others - solemn archaisms, in others - vulgar expressions, even “not quite decent words”. Among the most characteristic rhetorical devices of Cicero, common with other speakers of his time, is the exclamation (the most famous example is “ O times! O morals!"), rhetorical question, anaphora, parallelism, isocolon (isocolon), hyperbaton. Other important rhetorical devices were widest application superlative adjectives and the deliberate use of cognates in one sentence. However, these means of expression were not the prerogative of Cicero: they were also used by other professional orators of the 1st century BC. BC: for example, the author of “Rhetoric to Herennius”.

The style of Cicero's letters differs markedly from his other works, but different letters are very heterogeneous in style. Cicero himself divided letters into public (official) and private (personal), and among the latter he distinguished two separate subclasses - “friendly and humorous” and “serious and important”. In personal letters, Cicero does not resort to the use of titles and dates, and often uses hints that are understandable only to the addressee. When communicating with those closest to him, he often uses everyday speech, uses proverbs, riddles, games with words, and regularly makes witty remarks (his favorite object of jokes is his opponent Clodius). More formal are the letters to magistrates and people with whom Cicero was on cool terms. As M. von Albrecht notes, “the most polite thing is correspondence between enemies.” Thanks to the use of a living spoken language, Cicero's correspondence reveals the richest vocabulary: many words and phrases not found in his other works. Quite often, Cicero in his correspondence switches to the ancient Greek language known to the Roman elite. Sometimes in letters there are deviations from the classical syntax of the Latin language.

Cicero's philosophical and, to a lesser extent, rhetorical treatises were decisively influenced by the Greek tradition. Almost all treatises are written in the form of dialogue, common for ancient philosophical works, and Cicero preferred not short remarks in the form of questions and answers, as in Plato’s early dialogues, but long (sometimes for a whole book) speeches, most characteristic of Aristotle. Less clear is the origin of the author's transfer of the time of action of the dialogues into the past. Cicero's innovation lies in the fact that it was he who began to carefully work on the style of his essays. Before him, rhetorical treatises were almost never carefully finished. They had worked on the style of philosophical treatises before, but Cicero paid great attention to this issue. Among other things, he carefully monitored the preservation of the stylistic features of the speeches of famous speakers of the past. However, Cicero's main innovation was the use of Latin instead of ancient Greek in philosophical literature, although he himself attributes this merit to his friend Varro. Cicero criticized skeptics who considered the Latin language unworthy for philosophical works, but at the same time read translated plays.

Sometimes Cicero also wrote poetry. As a rule, he turned to the experience of old Roman poets and neglected modern trends. His poetic experiments are assessed in a diametrically opposite way. For example, I. M. Tronsky denies Cicero poetic talent, and M. von Albrecht believes that he had big influence on the Roman poetic tradition and even prepared the way for the poets of the Augustan era. However, the German researcher admits that Cicero’s influence on the authors of the Maecenas circle has not yet been studied.

Thanks to the large number of surviving speeches and letters of Cicero, it is possible to trace his evolution as an orator and, to a lesser extent, as a writer (Cicero wrote most of his treatises in last years life).

Fragment of Cicero's speech for Rabirius

“But,” you say, it was Rabirius who killed Saturninus. Oh, that he would do it! In this case, I would not ask to spare him from execution, but demand a reward for him.”

In the speeches for Publius Quinctius and Sextus Roscius of Ameria, signs of authorship by an insufficiently experienced lawyer are revealed - a similar turn is repeated twice in one speech, and certain elements of the speech resemble school rhetorical exercises. According to M.E. Grabar-Passek, “describing the position of Quinctius if he loses the trial, Cicero depicts his fate in such black colors that one might think that Quinctius, at least, is going into exile with confiscation of property; and he could only lose everything land plot in Gaul." The speeches against Verres are carefully designed and mark a huge step forward for Cicero the orator. In the 60s BC. e. Cicero continued to develop as an orator, mastering new techniques of oratory. Thus, in his speech for Murena, he did not even try to deny that his client bribed voters in the elections. Instead, the speaker, joking liberally, invited the listeners to look at the events that took place as a manifestation of Murena’s sincere love for his fellow citizens. In addition, 63 BC. e. This also includes the fiery first speech against Catiline - one of the most famous speeches in Cicero’s entire career. The next three "Catilinarians", however, largely repeat the first. Cicero's oratory career in the 50s BC. e. assessed differently. M.E. Grabar-Passek believes that constant narcissism did not do him any good, especially in criminal speeches, where it is completely out of place. She also takes a shift from light humor towards malicious sarcasm as a symptom of decline. On the contrary, M. von Albrecht declares the visible shortcomings of Cicero’s speeches during this period to be intentional, and recognizes the speeches of the late 50s as the most powerful speeches in his career. In the early 40s BC. e. Cicero's speeches change greatly, which is due to the fact that the main judicial decisions were now made at the will of Caesar, and not by the judges themselves. Since judicial speeches now had only one real addressee, the speaker had to adapt to his tastes. Thus, the style of speeches of this period underwent significant changes towards simplification (“Attic style”), which was preferred by the dictator. Sometimes the revision of Cicero's traditional oratorical guidelines is explained precisely by an attempt to curry favor with him by bringing his speeches closer to Caesar's rhetorical ideal. Cicero regularly turns to the well-known mercy of Caesar, no longer for himself, but also for his clients. He asked Ligarius not to be considered a Pompeian - as if he ended up in Pompey’s army by accident. He chose a similar strategy when defending Deiotarus, trying to prove that the ruler of Galatia sided with Pompey by mistake. After the assassination of Caesar, the speaker regains freedom of expression, which was manifested in very tough and thorough “philippics” against Mark Antony.

In his early speeches, the little-known Cicero often emphasized that he " new person“, who achieved everything himself, and in later speeches regularly recalled his consulate. At the early stage of his oratorical career, Cicero sometimes abused isocolon, but later he began to resort to it less often. Over time, the use of interrogative sentences and parenteses becomes frequent. Cicero begins to make assumptions more often and immediately confirm them, which creates an ironic effect. The use of various grammatical phrases also changes: for example, the frequency of use of the gerund increases and the use of the gerund decreases. Towards the end of his life, Cicero begins to use various expressions with adverbs more often than before, although in his treatises he, on the contrary, begins to refer less often to one of them - the absolute ablative. The requirements for maintaining the rhythm of speech in oratory speeches forced the speaker to resort to the choice of synonymous words and constructions with the required orders of short and long syllables. This approach is reflected in all of Cicero's speeches, although the speaker's preferences gradually evolved over time. Preferences in the choice of vocabulary also change, as a result of which in later speeches a different frequency of a number of words is observed than in earlier ones. In addition, in “philippics” he is often emphatically brief. M. Albrecht characterizes the main changes in Cicero’s oratorical style as an increasing desire for purity of language (purism), less frequent use of lush rhetorical means, “strength and transparency instead of abundance.”

Family

Cicero was married twice. His first wife (no later than 76 BC) was Terence, who belonged to a rather noble family and gave birth to two children - Tullia, who died during the life of her parents (in 45 BC) and Mark, consul of 30 BC n. e. This marriage ended in divorce in 46 BC. e. After this, 60-year-old Cicero married a second time - to the young Publius. She loved him so much that she was jealous of her own stepdaughter and openly rejoiced at Tullia’s death. The result was a new divorce.

According to Plutarch, one of the sisters, Clodia, dreamed of becoming Cicero’s wife after his consulate, which aroused Terence’s hatred.

Cicero in culture and art

Memory of Cicero in ancient times

For his contemporaries and immediate descendants, Cicero was best known as a master of words. A younger contemporary, Gaius Sallust Crispus, whose enmity with Cicero in ancient times became a topic for school essays, supported the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy in the essay of the same name. A supporter of Mark Antony, Gaius Asinius Pollio, spoke of Cicero with open hostility. In the fundamental “History from the Founding of the City” Titus Livy is seen as the implementation of Cicero’s ideas about an ideal historical work. A letter from Livy is known in which he recommends that his son read Demosthenes and Cicero. They also remembered his political merits. Thanks to his enmity with Mark Antony, Emperor Octavian Augustus (who agreed with the execution of Mark Tullius in 43 BC) admitted Cicero's son to the consulate and membership in the college of augurs, in which his father was a member. Cicero's title "father of the fatherland" ( pater patriae) began to be used by emperors. The poets of the Augustan era, however, do not mention his name. Emperor Claudius defended Cicero from attacks from Asinius Gallus, son of Asinius Pollio. Pliny the Elder spoke warmly of Cicero, and his nephew Pliny the Younger became a follower of Cicero in style. Tacitus's "Dialogue on the Orators" has much in common with the rhetorical treatises of Cicero. Among the orators there were both supporters (among others, Seneca the Elder) and opponents of his style, but starting with Quintilian, the opinion was firmly established that it was Cicero’s writings that were an unsurpassed example of oratorical skill. The main opponents of Marcus Tullius were supporters of the Attic school of eloquence and archaists, although one of the leaders of the latter, Marcus Cornelius Fronto, spoke very highly of Cicero. Since the 2nd century AD. e. interest in Cicero as a person begins to gradually fade away. The biographer Plutarch and the historians Appian and Cassius Dio are reserved about him. However, Cicero continued to be an important “school author,” and the study of rhetoric was inconceivable without familiarity with his works. However, the pedagogical ideas he laid down in the dialogue “About the Speaker” about the need for comprehensive human development turned out to be unclaimed.

At the same time, interest in Cicero the philosopher increased. Among the admirers of Cicero's philosophy were many Christian thinkers, some of whom were very strongly influenced by him. Many of them were educated in pagan schools, in which the study of the works of Cicero was a very important element of education. Especially popular among apologists of ancient Christianity were the arguments in support of the existence of gods from the second book of the treatise “On the Nature of the Gods” (these thoughts, apparently, did not belong to Cicero, but to the Stoic philosophers). One of the most highly valued fragments was the reasoning in support of the rationality of the world order, put into the mouth of Balbus. On the contrary, the third book of the same treatise, in which Cicero put forward counterarguments to the theses expressed earlier, went almost unnoticed. G. G. Mayorov even admits that this part of Cicero’s work could have been copied with intentional lacunae in place of Cicero’s counterarguments, which led to the incomplete preservation of this book. Under the strong influence of the treatise “On the Nature of the Gods,” in particular, the dialogue “Octavius” by Marcus Minucius Felix was written: Caecilius in the dialogue of Minucius Felix actually repeats Cotta’s arguments in the aforementioned treatise by Cicero. Nicknamed the “Christian Cicero,” Lactantius developed the ideas of Marcus Tullius’ “On the State” from a Christian point of view and borrowed a significant part of the treatise “On the Nature of the Gods.” According to S. L. Utchenko, the degree of borrowing was so significant that later authors sometimes confused one of Lactantius’s treatises with a retelling of Cicero’s work. The strong influence of Cicero on Lactantius is also evident in the style of the writings. Ambrose of Milan supplemented and corrected Cicero with Christian theses, but on the whole closely followed his treatise “On Duties.” According to F. F. Zelinsky, “Ambrose Christianized Cicero.” Significant similarities are found between one of his sermons and a letter from Cicero to his brother Quintus. Jerome of Stridon held Cicero in high esteem, and his writings contain many quotations from his works. Augustine Aurelius recalled that it was reading the dialogue “Hortensius” that made him a true Christian. According to him, with the writings of Cicero “philosophy in Latin was begun and completed.” However, among the early Christian theologians there were also opponents of the active use of ancient philosophy, who called for complete cleansing from the pagan cultural heritage (this fundamentalist point of view was expressed, for example, by Tertullian), but they found themselves in the minority. The late antique philosopher Boethius left a commentary on the Topeka, and in the treatise The Consolation of Philosophy, parallels are found with the dialogue On Divination. Pagan authors also continued to appreciate Cicero. Macrobius, for example, wrote a commentary on the “dream of Scipio” from the treatise “On the State”.

Memory of Cicero in the Middle Ages and Modern Times

Thanks to the positive attitude towards Cicero on the part of a number of influential Christian theologians, his works, despite their considerable volume, were often copied by medieval monks, which contributed to the good preservation of the author’s texts. However, the influence of his books also caused a response from church hierarchs, dissatisfied with the popularity of the pagan author. For example, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, Pope Gregory I called for the destruction of the works of Cicero: they allegedly distracted young people from reading the Bible.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, interest in Cicero gradually declined - by the 9th century, some authors already consider Tullius and Cicero to be two different people. Isidore of Seville complained that his works were too voluminous, and from the works of Cicero during this period, rhetorical treatises used in teaching rhetoric were most often used. The main textbooks on oratory were the treatise “On Finding Material,” which Marcus Tullius himself was critical of, and “Rhetoric to Herennius,” attributed to Cicero. The first treatise was found in medieval libraries 12 times more often than “On the Orator” (148 mentions in medieval catalogs versus 12). The manuscripts “On the Finding of Material” are divided into two groups, depending on the presence or absence of several significant lacunae in them - mutili(“broken, mutilated”) and integra(“wholes”), although there are other differences between them. Oldest surviving manuscripts of the group mutili older (9th-10th centuries) than the oldest known manuscripts integra(10th century and later). Very often this treatise was rewritten along with the Rhetoric to Herennius. In the early Middle Ages, a number of Cicero’s works were forgotten, and contemporaries more often preferred to read other ancient authors, although some of Cicero’s works still have readers. Of the philosophical treatises, the most popular were “On Old Age”, “On Friendship”, “Tusculan Conversations” and a fragment of the last book of the treatise “On the State” - “Scipio’s Dream”. Due to the decline in literacy and the growing interest in short excerpts, Bede the Venerable collected the most important passages from the works of Cicero into one. In his biography of Charlemagne, Einhard quoted the Tusculan Conversations, and some fragments of this work indicate his familiarity with the speeches of Cicero. Servat Lupe, abbot of the monastery of Ferrières, collected the works of Cicero and noted with regret that his contemporaries owned in Latin much worse than the great Roman. Gadoard compiled a large collection of extracts from the works of Tullius and Cicero and other authors. In this case, the source of the extracts was a large library, which contained not only most of the surviving treatises of the Roman author, but also the subsequently lost treatise “Hortensius”. Herbert of Aurillac, who later became pope under the name of Sylvester II, demonstrates a good familiarity with the works of Cicero. It is assumed that Cicero's speeches in medieval manuscripts could owe their preservation to him. By the 11th-12th centuries, the works of Marcus Tullius were becoming popular again: judging by library inventories and reading lists, Cicero was among the most widely read ancient authors. Cicero was the favorite Latin author of John of Salisbury and one of the two favorites (along with Seneca) of Roger Bacon. Dante Alighieri knew well and repeatedly quoted the works of Cicero. In certain episodes of the Divine Comedy, the influence of his work is revealed, and Dante placed Cicero himself in limbo, among virtuous pagans. In Dante's philosophical works, including those written in Italian, he unwittingly came closer to Cicero, who laid down the tradition of creating philosophical works in in native language. A little earlier, Elred of Rivosky responded to Cicero’s treatise “On Friendship” with his own essay “On Spiritual Friendship.”

Among Cicero's admirers was Petrarch, for whom it was not the works of this Roman author that were of particular value, but the personality of Cicero himself. Petrarch's discovery of Cicero's deeply personal correspondence with Atticus in 1345 marked the revival of the entire epistolary genre. According to F. F. Zelinsky, “[d]t that time people knew only impersonal writing - a treatise letter by Seneca, an anecdote letter by Pliny, a sermon letter by Jerome; individual writing as a literary work was considered unthinkable.” Subsequently, Petrarch, like his idol, published his personal correspondence. However, a careful study of the found correspondence of Marcus Tullius puzzled Petrarch, since Cicero turned out to be far from being the ideal person as previously imagined. In addition to letters to Atticus, Petrarch discovered letters from Cicero to Quintus and a speech in defense of Archius. Poggio Bracciolini and Coluccio Salutati discovered several other works of Cicero that were considered lost (however, some of them were listed in the inventories of medieval libraries and were unknown to the general public). In 1421, in the library of Lodi, in a chest that had not been opened for a long time, a manuscript with three rhetorical works “On the Orator”, “The Orator” and “Brutus” was discovered in very good preservation; up to this point, these writings were known only with severe distortions. By 1428, when from the manuscript Laudensis(after the Latin name of the city) they managed to make several copies, it mysteriously disappeared. The reading difficulties encountered by the copyists of this manuscript are interpreted in favor of a very ancient time of its creation - probably before the invention of the Carolingian minuscule. The close acquaintance of many humanists (Bocaccio, Leonardo Bruni, Niccolo Niccoli, Coluccio Salutati, Ambrogio Traversari, Pietro Paolo Vergerio, Poggio Bracciolini) with all the works of Cicero contributed to the development of the humanistic character of the Renaissance. F. F. Zelinsky even calls Marcus Tullius “the inspiration of the Renaissance.” Cicero's philosophical works became an ideal for humanists thanks to the author's broad outlook, rejection of dogmatism, clear presentation and careful literary finishing. The popularity of Cicero was facilitated by the widespread study of his works in educational institutions. In less powerful schools, the curriculum was sometimes limited to Virgil only from all poetry, and Cicero from prose. Their inclusion in the curriculum was due to the absence of serious contradictions with Christianity; for similar reasons, schools did not study the materialistic poem of Lucretius Cara and the “obscene” work of Petronius Arbiter. As a result of the colonization of America, the American Indians also became acquainted with Cicero: as a classical author, he was studied at the Collegiate Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in Mexico City in the 1530s.

Cicero's letters and philosophical treatises were imitated by many Renaissance authors. This process had a great influence on the formation of the style of New Latin prose, which subsequently contributed to the development of national literatures in Europe. At the same time, Cicero's works were imitated far beyond the borders of the former Roman Empire - in particular, in the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary and Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Gasparin de Bergamo played a major role in the process of adapting Cicero's style to the needs of modern times. In addition, the works of the Roman author began to be translated very early into spoken European languages ​​(primarily Italian and French). The Catholic Church initially resisted the teaching of a version of Latin based on the works of a pagan author in schools, but under the strong influence of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, it was Rome that became the center for the dissemination of Cicero's style. An admirer of Cicero, Erasmus of Rotterdam, in his pamphlet “The Ciceronian,” criticized especially zealous imitators of the style of the Roman author. In his opinion, modern attempts to imitate Cicero look ridiculous, to say the least. Erasmus's work evoked a lot of responses from all over Europe (in particular, Guillaume Budet and Julius Caesar Scaliger spoke out).

Interest in Cicero remained not only among humanists. Among the ideologists of the Reformation, Cicero was highly valued by Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, although starting with Calvin, Protestant thinkers began to deny his merits. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, attempts were made to comprehend the concepts of state, freedom and citizenship primarily through ancient political thought - mainly through the writings of Cicero. Nicolaus Copernicus recalled that one of the most important reasons that forced him to reconsider the dominant geocentric model of the Universe was the mention of the opposite point of view in Cicero. Although many of the thoughts expressed in the writings of Cicero were first proposed by his predecessors, it was Marcus Tullius who deserves the credit for preserving them for posterity. A good acquaintance with the philosophy of Cicero is found in a number of thinkers of the 17th-18th centuries - John Locke, John Toland, David Hume, Anthony Shaftesbury, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Gabriel Mably and others. At the same time, the greatest influence was exerted by the moral philosophy developed by Cicero. During the Enlightenment, Marcus Tullius's attempt to create a popular practical philosophy was especially highly valued. However, the development of fundamentally new philosophical systems Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and others set a new fashion in the style of philosophizing, and Cicero, who allowed the peaceful coexistence of different views, did not fit well with the new ideal of a philosopher. As a result, opinions about Cicero were divided: Voltaire, who was traditionally critical of authorities, admired him, used his ideas in his writings and even wrote a play in defense of Cicero after the success of Crébillon’s Catiline, but was very reserved towards Marcus Tullius. Interest in Cicero was not limited to his philosophy. Admiration for classical antiquity was also manifested in the fact that it was Cicero who became a model of political eloquence for a number of figures of the Great French Revolution - especially Mirabeau and Robespierre. The Prussian king Frederick II was a connoisseur of Cicero: on military campaigns he always took with him the treatises “Tusculan Conversations”, “On the Nature of the Gods” and “On the Limits of Good and Evil”. In 1779, on his orders, work began on translating all of Cicero's works into German.

In the 19th century, researchers who began to become closely acquainted with the primary sources of ancient philosophy were now able to do without Cicero’s popular exposition. Kant, however, cited Cicero as an example of a popular and accessible overview of philosophy. Barthold Niebuhr's approval of Cicero gave way to sharp criticism of his work by Wilhelm Drumann and Theodor Mommsen. The influence of the last two authors predetermined a biased attitude towards Cicero at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Supporters of Cicero (in particular, Gaston Boissier) were in the minority. Friedrich Engels wrote in a letter to Karl Marx: “A lower scoundrel than this fellow cannot be found among the simpletons since the very creation of the world.”

The image of Cicero in works of art

• F.I. Tyutchev dedicated a poem of the same name to Cicero. In it the author tries to console literary hero, who regrets the decline of Rome, in that he can consider himself exalted by the gods, since he witnessed such a great and tragic historical moment.
• Cicero became the central character in Robert Harris's novel Imperium (2006) and its sequel (Lustrum, 2009), which combine documented facts of the speaker's biography with fiction.
• Cicero appears in the series of books by K. McCullough “The Lords of Rome”.
• Cicero is one of the key characters in the series "Rome". Here he was played by David Bamber.
• In the film “Julius Caesar” (Great Britain, 1970), the role of Cicero was played by Andre Morell.
• Cicero is one of the characters in Andre Brink's drama "Caesar", dedicated to the conspiracy and murder of Caesar.

The image of Cicero in historiography

According to Cicero researcher G. Benario, the large-scale and varied work of the Roman author, a busy political career at the epicenter of the political events of the Roman Republic, as well as the abundance of diametrically opposed assessments of his activities force historians to study only certain aspects of his biography. According to him, “Cicero confounds the scholar.”

T. Mommsen's critical attitude towards Cicero predetermined low assessments by historians of his activities and relatively little interest in his personality at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Such views manifested themselves especially strongly and for a long time in German historiography. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Italian historian G. Ferrero saw in Cicero a man on the level of Caesar. E. Meyer developed the subsequently popular idea that Cicero theoretically substantiated the “Principate of Pompey,” which the author considered the direct forerunner of the Principate of Augustus and, accordingly, the entire Roman Empire. IN Russian Empire Cicero was studied by S. I. Vekhov, who analyzed the treatise “On the State,” R. Yu. Vipper, who characterized him as an insufficiently consistent politician without strong convictions and personal courage, and especially F. F. Zelinsky. In addition to translating a number of works by the Roman author into Russian and an article about him in the Brockhaus Encyclopedia, Zelinsky published in German a very valuable work “Cicero in the Course of the Centuries” (German: Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte), which examined Cicero’s place in world culture.

In 1925-29, a two-volume work by E. Chacheri “Cicero and His Time” (Italian: Cicerone e i suoi tempi) was published, supplemented and republished in 1939-41. The Italian historian did not deny the existence of Cicero’s own beliefs, but pointed out that he succumbed too easily to circumstances. In addition, he recognized the influence of the treatise “On the State” on Octavian Augustus. Ronald Syme spoke critically of Cicero. In 1939, a large article on Cicero was published in the Pauli-Wissow Encyclopedia. This work, the result of a collaboration between four authors, had a volume of about 210 thousand words.

After the Second World War, there was a tendency towards a revision of the negative image of Cicero, while at the same time a decline in enthusiasm for Caesar, his main opponent. In 1946, the Danish researcher G. Frisch published a study of Cicero's Philippic against a broad historical background. The reviewer of this work, E.M. Shtaerman, insists that the author has gone to the opposite extreme, whitewashing Cicero beyond all measure, and believes that the author praises not only Marcus Tullius, but also the Senate republic, although “this “republicanism” is essentially very reactionary " In 1947, the works of F. Wilkin “The Eternal Lawyer” about Cicero and J. Carcopino “The Secret of Cicero’s Correspondence” (French Les secrets de la correspondance de Cicéron) were published. F. Wilkin, a judge by profession, presented Cicero as a defender of all the offended and a fighter for justice, repeatedly drawing parallels with modern times. The two-volume work of the French researcher is devoted not so much to the analysis of letters, but to the dark question of the circumstances of the publication of this very frank literary monument, which casts a shadow on Cicero. According to Carcopino, the personal correspondence was published by Octavian in order to discredit the popular republican among his contemporaries and descendants. The reviewer of this work, E.M. Shtaerman, came to the conclusion that Carkopino freely used sources to prove his thoughts.

In 1957, the world celebrated the 2000th anniversary of the death of Cicero. In memory of this anniversary, several scientific conferences were held and a number of works were published. In particular, two collections of articles in Russian dedicated to Cicero were published in 1958 and 1959. A. Ch. Kozarzhevsky, who reviewed them, noted the emphasis of both works on popularizing the legacy of Cicero. He generally highly appreciated the collection published at Moscow State University, disagreeing only with certain provisions of the authors - for example, with the use of the term “just war” in classical Roman ( bellum iustum), and not in the Marxist sense, with the characterization of Cicero as a patriot (the reviewer believes that Cicero’s views are not patriotism, but nationalism) and with the thesis about the consistency of Cicero in literary passions: according to the reviewer, this statement contradicts the assessment of F. Engels. The collection, published by the Institute of World Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences, did not completely satisfy the reviewer. In general, highly appreciating the articles by M. E. Grabar-Passek on the beginning of Cicero’s political career and E. A. Berkova on Cicero’s criticism of superstitions, he speaks negatively of F. A. Petrovsky’s insufficiently detailed essay on Cicero’s views on literature and on T.’s articles. I. Kuznetsova and I. P. Strelnikova, which are devoted to the analysis of speeches against Verres and against Catiline, respectively. The reviewer believes that the stylistic features of the speeches against Verres are not covered in sufficient detail, and the analysis of the speeches against Catiline is very chaotic in structure. He also blames the latest authors for citing subjective and inaccurate (in the reviewer’s opinion) translations of F. F. Zelinsky and regrets the insufficient full use research literature. In 1959, the first volume of “The History of Roman Literature” was published, which included a detailed section on Cicero, written by M. E. Grabar-Passek. This work was highly appreciated.

In 1969, M. Geltser published the monograph “Cicero: a biographical experience” (German: Cicero: Ein biographischer Versuch). It was based on an article in the Pauli-Wissow encyclopedia, the author of the biographical part of which was Geltser. The book was significantly improved and supplemented taking into account new research (new material made up about a quarter of the entire work). At the same time, reviewer E. Grün noted that, along with the merits of the original text, Geltser’s book also inherited its shortcomings, which did not allow a complete portrait of Cicero to be drawn up. He also pointed out unexpected gaps in such a detailed work when covering some facts of the biography of Marcus Tullius, as well as the author’s insufficient analysis of the causes of a number of events. The reviewer also did not agree with a number of points made by the author (their listing takes half a page). A. Douglas joins E. Grün’s assessment and regrets that the author was unable to reveal how Cicero’s speeches were perceived in his time. J. Seaver highly appreciates Geltzer's work, especially highlighting his ability to work with sources and understand intricate family connections, and notes that the author was able to overcome the categorical interpretations of T. Mommsen. This manifested itself in a very positive overall assessment Cicero by Geltzer, and in the author’s refusal of artificial modernizations of Roman political life.

In 1971, D. Stockton’s work “Cicero: A Political Biography” was published. According to reviewer E. Lintott, the beginning of Cicero’s career and the historical background of his activities are presented too briefly, and a noticeable drawback of the work can be considered the absence in the biography of a professional lawyer of a description of legal proceedings in the late Roman Republic. The reviewer argues with the author on several issues - because of the overly schematic, in his opinion, comparison of the Roman legal system with the British, and because of the modernization of forms of political organization in the Roman Republic: the author compares optimates and populares with modern political parties, with which E. Lintott strongly disagrees. In his opinion, D. Stockton generally successfully examines the activities of Cicero in the 60s BC. e. and in the last two years of his life, but coverage of the events of the 50s and early 40s BC. e. not detailed enough. Reviewer F. Trautman noted the author's good and bright style, as well as an abundant and convenient bibliography. In his opinion, Stockton joins a new generation of researchers who are moving away from negative assessments of Cicero, recognizing his undoubted merits (patriotism, energy, oratorical abilities), but also noting the lack of the strong character necessary for a politician at critical moments.

At the same time, a semi-documentary biography of Cicero by D. Shackleton-Bailey was published in the Classical Life and Letters series. The author, known as the translator of Cicero's letters to English language, showed the life of Cicero based on quotes from his correspondence with author’s comments. On the contrary, little attention is paid to speeches and treatises. Trying to convey the flavor of the letters, the author translated inserts in ancient Greek into French. Since the surviving correspondence was created almost exclusively after the mid-60s BC. e., Cicero’s childhood and youth are described very briefly. The selection of letters in the work is very subjective, and reviewer E. Rawson noted that experts on this period of Roman history in some cases can offer a worthy alternative. The author's commentary was characterized by the reviewer as valuable and often non-trivial. Another reviewer, D. Stockton, suggested that the book, despite the title, is not a biography of Cicero in the usual sense. According to his observation, the author does not hide his negative attitude towards the unnatural and unrevealed speeches of Marcus Tullius. He considers the lack of a full-fledged reference apparatus to be a serious drawback. Reviewer G. Phifer notes that Stockton's biography casts Cicero in an unfavorable light, which is largely due to the lack of surviving letters before the mid-60s BC. e.

In 1972, S. L. Utchenko’s monograph “Cicero and His Time” was published (subsequently republished). It examined the activities of Cicero against a broad historical background. Because of its emphasis on the political activities of Marcus Tullius, the book is essentially political biography. Literary and oratorical activities were briefly discussed. A separate chapter of the monograph was devoted to consideration of the image of Cicero in world culture and historiography. This book by S. L. Utchenko was very popular among readers.

In 1990, H. Habicht’s book “Cicero the Politician” (English: Cicero the Politician; it was also published in German), created by the author based on lectures given in 1987 at universities in the USA and Germany, was published. The author points out the unusual nature of Cicero's career, emphasizing that another "new man" Marius failed to become consul suo anno, that is, at the minimum acceptable age, but Cicero managed to achieve this. The author believes that the inflated self-esteem of Marcus Tullius is quite natural in the aggressive and competitive environment of noble nobles, as a result of which Cicero had to obey the demands of society and demonstrate the same qualities as aristocrats. The German researcher believes that if the personal letters and speeches of Cicero's contemporaries (for example, Pompey and Caesar) were preserved, they would reveal similar character traits of the authors. Habicht puts Cicero above Caesar, since the latter's actions were aimed primarily at destruction, and Marcus Tullius - at creation. Reviewer J. May believes that Habicht's book convincingly proves the inconsistency of critical views on Cicero, still widespread due to the influence of T. Mommsen. Reviewer L. de Blois notes that the author’s strong dependence on Cicero’s letters is fraught with the possible influence of the views of Marcus Tullius himself on the researcher. He also points to a lack of explanation of the meaning of some basic terms and a sketchy, simplified and somewhat outdated view of Roman politics. According to the reviewer, the author sometimes makes overly self-confident statements, which probably require additional justification. Reviewer R. Callet-Marx believes that the author underestimated the financial benefits of Cicero from judicial speeches, and regrets that he did not reveal in sufficient detail the content of a number of slogans that Cicero put forward as basic political principles.

In 1991, in the “Life of Remarkable People” series, a translation of Cicero’s biography by the French researcher P. Grimal into Russian was published. Translator G. S. Knabe in the introductory article noted the author’s deep knowledge of the sources, which is visible to a specialist even taking into account the fact that the popular science format does not involve references to sources, as well as a masterful consideration of the personality of Cicero as a product of ancient Roman culture. The shortcomings of the book by G. S. Knabe included an insufficiently clear description of the historical background in a 500-page book (this problem is partly offset by the introductory article by the translator - a famous historian), an imperfect structure with frequent references to previously stated thoughts and insufficient depth of analysis when talking about philosophical works Cicero.

In 2002, a collection of articles (English: Brill's Companion to Cicero: Oratory and Rhetoric) was published, the structure of which (17 articles written by different authors) was focused on a comprehensive disclosure of Cicero's oratorical activity. J. Zetzel recognized the high scientific level of the vast majority of articles , but expressed regret that fifty pages of text were devoted to the consideration of three formal speeches before Caesar, while the important speech for Archias did not receive special consideration. It was the uneven coverage of Cicero's oratorical heritage that the reviewer considered the main drawback of the collection. D. Berry regrets the minor shortcomings of the editorial work, but overall appreciates the collection.

In 2008, E. Lintott’s work “Cicero as