Eastern Slavs and theirs. Eastern Slavs in ancient times. Eastern Slavs and their tribal principalities

The Eastern Slavs are a large group of related peoples, which today numbers more than 300 million people. The history of the formation of these nationalities, their traditions, faith, relations with other states is important points in history, since they answer the question of how our ancestors appeared in ancient times.

Origin

The question of the origin of the Eastern Slavs is interesting. This is our history and our ancestors, the first mentions of which date back to the beginning of our era. If we talk about archaeological excavations, scientists find artifacts indicating that the nation began to form before our era.

All Slavic languages ​​belong to a single Indo-European group. Its representatives emerged as a nationality around the 8th millennium BC. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs (and many other peoples) lived along the shores of the Caspian Sea. Around the 2nd millennium BC, the Indo-European group split into three nationalities:

• Pro-Germans (Germans, Celts, Romans). Filled Western and Southern Europe.
• Baltoslavs. They settled between the Vistula and the Dnieper.
• Iranian and Indian peoples. They settled throughout Asia.

Around the 5th century BC, the Balotoslavs are divided into Balts and Slavs; already in the 5th century AD, the Slavs, in short, are divided into eastern (eastern Europe), western (central Europe) and southern (Balkan Peninsula).

Today, the Eastern Slavs include: Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The invasion of the Hun tribes into the Black Sea region in the 4th century destroyed the Greek and Scythian states. Many historians call this fact the root cause of the future creation of the ancient state by the Eastern Slavs.

Historical reference

Settlement

An important question is how the Slavs developed new territories, and how their settlement occurred in general. There are 2 main theories of the appearance of the Eastern Slavs in Eastern Europe:

• Autochthonous. It suggests that the Slavic ethnic group was originally formed on the East European Plain. The theory was put forward by historian B. Rybakov. There are no significant arguments in its favor.
• Migration. Suggests that the Slavs migrated from other regions. Soloviev and Klyuchevsky argued that the migration was from the territory of the Danube. Lomonosov spoke about migration from the Baltic territory. There is also a theory of migration from the regions of Eastern Europe.

Around the 6th-7th centuries, the Eastern Slavs settled the area of Eastern Europe. They settled in the territory from Ladoga and Lake Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea coast in the south, from the Carpathian Mountains in the West to the Volga territories in the East.

13 tribes lived in this territory. Some sources talk about 15 tribes, but this data does not find historical confirmation. The Eastern Slavs in ancient times consisted of 13 tribes: Vyatichi, Radimichi, Polyan, Polotsk, Volynians, Ilmen, Dregovichi, Drevlyans, Ulichs, Tivertsy, Northerners, Krivichi, Dulebs.

Specifics of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs on the East European Plain:

• Geographical. There are no natural barriers, which makes movement easier.
• Ethnic. Lived and migrated in the territory a large number of people with different ethnic composition.
• Communication skills. The Slavs settled near captivity and alliances, which could influence the ancient state, but on the other hand they could share their culture.

Map of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times

Tribes

The main tribes of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times are presented below.

Glade. The most numerous tribe, strong on the banks of the Dnieper, south of Kyiv. It was the glades that became the drain for the formation of the ancient Russian state. According to the chronicle, in 944 they stopped calling themselves Polyans, and began to use the name Rus.

Slovenian Ilmenskie. The northernmost tribe that settled around Novgorod, Ladoga and Lake Peipsi. According to Arab sources, it was the Ilmen, together with the Krivichi, who formed the first state - Slavia.

Krivichi. They settled north of the Western Dvina and in the upper reaches of the Volga. The main cities are Polotsk and Smolensk.

Polotsk residents. They settled south of the Western Dvina. A minor tribal union that did not play an important role in the Eastern Slavs forming a state.

Dregovichi. They lived between the upper reaches of the Neman and the Dnieper. They mostly settled along the Pripyat River. All that is known about this tribe is that they had their own principality, the main city of which was Turov.

Drevlyans. They settled south of the Pripyat River. The main city of this tribe was Iskorosten.

Volynians. They settled more densely than the Drevlyans at the sources of the Vistula.

White Croats. The westernmost tribe, which was located between the Dniester and Vistula rivers.

Duleby. They were located east of the white Croats. One of the weakest tribes that did not last long. They voluntarily became part of the Russian state, having previously split into Buzhans and Volynians.

Tivertsy. They occupied the territory between the Prut and the Dniester.

Uglichi. They settled between the Dniester and the Southern Bug.

Northerners. They mainly occupied the territory adjacent to the Desna River. The center of the tribe was the city of Chernigov. Subsequently, several cities were formed on this territory that are still known today, for example, Bryansk.

Radimichi. They settled between the Dnieper and Desna. In 885 they were annexed to the Old Russian state.

Vyatichi. They were located along the sources of the Oka and Don. According to the chronicle, the ancestor of this tribe was the legendary Vyatko. Moreover, already in the 14th century there are no mentions of the Vyatichi in the chronicles.

Tribal alliances

The Eastern Slavs had 3 strong tribal unions: Slavia, Kuyavia and Artania.

In relations with other tribes and countries, the Eastern Slavs attempted to capture raids (mutual) and trade. Mainly connections were with:

• Byzantine Empire (Slav raids and mutual trade)
• Varangians (Varangian raids and mutual trade).
• Avars, Bulgars and Khazars (raids on the Slavs and mutual trade). Often these tribes are called Turkic or Türks.
• Fino-Ugrians (the Slavs tried to seize their territory).

What did you do

The Eastern Slavs were mainly engaged in agriculture. The specifics of their settlement determined the methods of cultivating the land. IN southern regions, as well as in the Dnieper region, chernozem soil dominated. Here the land was used for up to 5 years, after which it was depleted. Then people moved to another site, and the depleted one took 25-30 years to recover. This farming method is called folded .

The northern and central region of the East European Plain was characterized by a large number of forests. Therefore, the ancient Slavs first cut down the forest, burned it, fertilized the soil with ashes, and only then began field work. Such a plot was fertile for 2-3 years, after which it was abandoned and moved on to the next one. This method of farming is called slash-and-burn .

If we try to briefly characterize the main activities of the Eastern Slavs, the list will be as follows: agriculture, hunting, fishing, beekeeping (honey collection).

The main agricultural crop of the Eastern Slavs in ancient times was millet. Marten skins were primarily used by the Eastern Slavs as money. Much attention was paid to the development of crafts.

Beliefs

The beliefs of the ancient Slavs are called paganism because they worshiped many gods. Mainly deities were associated with natural phenomena. Almost every phenomenon or important component of life that the Eastern Slavs professed had a corresponding god. For example:

• Perun - god of lightning
• Yarilo - sun god
• Stribog - god of the wind
• Volos (Veles) – patron saint of cattle breeders
• Mokosh (Makosh) – goddess of fertility
• And so on

The ancient Slavs did not build temples. They built rituals in groves, meadows, stone idols and other places. Noteworthy is the fact that almost all fairy-tale folklore in terms of mysticism belongs specifically to the era under study. In particular, the Eastern Slavs believed in the goblin, brownie, mermaids, merman and others.

How were the activities of the Slavs reflected in paganism? It was paganism, which was based on worship of the elements and elements influencing fertility, that shaped the Slavs’ attitude to agriculture as the main way of life.

Social structure

Part of the common Slavic people, who settled the territory of the East European Plain in the early Middle Ages, formed a group of East Slavic tribes (they were noticeably different from the southern and western Slavs). This conglomerate was adjacent to many different peoples.

The emergence of the Eastern Slavs

Modern archeology has all the necessary materials to illuminate in detail where and how the East Slavic tribes and their neighbors lived. How did these early medieval communities form? Back in the Roman era, the Slavs settled the middle reaches of the Vistula, as well as the upper reaches of the Dniester. From here colonization began to the east - into the territory modern Russia and Ukraine.

In the 5th and 7th centuries. The Slavs who settled in the Dnieper region lived next to the Antes. In the 8th century, as a result of a new powerful migration wave, another culture was formed - the Romny culture. Its carriers were northerners. These East Slavic tribes and their neighbors inhabited the basins of the Seima, Desna and Sula rivers. They were distinguished from other “relatives” by their narrow faces. The northerners settled in copses and fields, intersected by forests and swamps.

Colonization of the Volga and Oka

In the 6th century, colonization of the future Russian North and the interfluve of the Volga and Oka began by the Eastern Slavs. Here the settlers encountered two groups of neighbors - the Balts and the Finno-Ugric peoples. The Krivichi were the first to move to the northeast. They settled the upper reaches of the Volga. The Ilmen Slovenes penetrated further north and settled in the White Lake region. Here they encountered the Pomors. The Ilmen people also populated the Mologa basin and the Yaroslavl Volga region. Along with the tribes, rituals also mixed.

East Slavic tribes and their neighbors divided the modern Moscow region and the Ryazan region. Here the colonialists were the Vyatichi, and to a lesser extent, the northerners and Radimichi. The Don Slavs also made their contribution. The Vyatichi reached and settled along the shores. A characteristic feature of these colonizers was. According to them, archaeologists determined the area of ​​settlement of the Vyatichi. North-Eastern Rus' attracted settlers with a stable agricultural base and fur resources, which by that time had already been depleted in other regions of Slavic settlement. The local inhabitants - the Mer (Finno-Ugrians) - were few in number and soon disappeared among the Slavs or were pushed out by them even further to the north.

Eastern neighbors

Having settled the upper reaches of the Volga, the Slavs became neighbors of the Volga Bulgarians. They lived on the territory of modern Tatarstan. The Arabs considered them the most northern people world who professed Islam. The capital of the kingdom of the Volga Bulgarians was the city of Great Bulgar. His fort has survived to this day. Military clashes between the Volga Bulgarians and the Eastern Slavs began already during the period of the existence of a single centralized Rus', when its society ceased to be strictly tribal. Conflicts alternated with periods of peace. At this time, the lucrative trade along the great river brought significant income to both sides.

The settlement of East Slavic tribes on their eastern borders also ended up in the territory inhabited by the Khazars. like the Volga Bulgarians, was Turkic. At the same time, the Khazars were Jews, which was quite unusual for Europe at that time. They controlled significant territories from the Don to the Caspian Sea. The heart was located in the lower reaches of the Volga, where the Khazar capital Itil existed not far from modern Astrakhan.

Western neighbors

Volyn is considered the western border of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs. From there to the Dnieper lived the Dulebs - an alliance of several tribes. Archaeologists classify it as a member of the Prague-Korchak culture. The union included the Volhynians, Drevlyans, Dregovichi and Polyanians. In the 7th century they survived the Avar invasion.

The East Slavic tribes and their neighbors in this region lived in the steppe zone. To the west began the territory of the Western Slavs, primarily the Poles. Relations with them worsened after the creation of Rus' and Vladimir Svyatoslavich’s adoption of Orthodoxy. The Poles were baptized according to the Catholic rite. Between them and the Eastern Slavs there was a struggle not only for Volyn, but also for Galicia.

Fight against the Pechenegs

During the period of the existence of pagan tribes, the Eastern Slavs were never able to colonize the Black Sea region. Here ended the so-called “Great Steppe” - a steppe belt located in the heart of Eurasia. The Black Sea region attracted a variety of nomads. In the 9th century, the Pechenegs settled there. These hordes lived between Russia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Alania.

Having gained a foothold in the Black Sea region, the Pechenegs destroyed sedentary cultures in the steppes. The Transnistrian Slavs (Tivertsi), as well as the Don Alans, disappeared. In the 10th century, numerous Russian-Pecheneg wars began. The East Slavic tribes and their neighbors could not get along with each other. The Unified State Examination pays a lot of attention to the Pechenegs, which is not surprising. These ferocious nomads lived only by robberies and gave no rest to the people of Kiev and Pereyaslavl. In the 11th century, they were replaced by an even more formidable enemy - the Polovtsians.

Slavs on the Don

The Slavs began to massively explore the Middle Don region at the turn of the 8th - 9th centuries. At this time, monuments of Borshev culture appeared here. Its most important attributes (ceramics, house-building, traces of rituals) show that the colonizers of the Don region originated from the south-west of Eastern Europe. The Don Slavs were neither northerners nor Vyatichi, as researchers assumed until recently. In the 9th century, as a result of the infiltration of the population, the kurgan burial rite, which was identical to the Vyatichi one, spread among them.

In the 10th century, the Russian Slavs and their neighbors in this region survived the predatory raids of the Pechenegs. Many left the Don region and returned to Poochye. That is why we can say that the Ryazan land was populated from two sides - from the southern steppes and from the west. The return of the Slavs to the Don basin occurred only in the 12th century. In this direction in the south, new colonizers reached the basin and completely mastered the Voronezh River basin.

Close to the Balts and Finno-Ugrians

The Radimichi and Vyatichi neighbored the Balts - the inhabitants of modern Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. Their cultures acquired some general features. No wonder. The East Slavic tribes and their neighbors, in short, not only traded, but also influenced each other’s ethnogenesis. For example, in the settlements of the Vyatichi, archaeologists found neck torches that were unnatural for other related tribes.

A unique Slavic culture developed around the Balts and Finno-Ugric peoples in the area of ​​Lake Pskov. Long rampart-shaped mounds appeared here, which replaced the ground burial grounds. These were built only by the local East Slavic tribes and their neighbors. The history of the development of funeral rites allows specialists to become more thoroughly acquainted with the past of the pagans. The ancestors of the Pskovites built above-ground log buildings with heaters or adobe stoves (contrary to the southern custom of half-dugouts). They also practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. It should be noted that the Pskov long mounds spread to the Polotsk Podvina and the Smolensk Dnieper region. In their regions, the influence of the Balts was especially strong.

Influence of neighbors on religion and mythology

Like many other Slavs, they lived according to the patriarchal clan system. Because of this, they developed and maintained a cult of family and a cult of funerals. The Slavs were pagans. The most important gods of their pantheon are Perun, Mokosh and Veles. Slavic mythology was influenced by the Celts and Iranians (Sarmatians, Scythians and Alans). These parallels were manifested in the images of the gods. So, Dazhbog is similar to the Celtic deity Dagda, and Mokosh is similar to Maha.

The pagan Slavs and their neighbors had a lot in common in their beliefs. The history of Baltic mythology left the names of the gods Perkunas (Perun) and Velnyas (Veles). The motif of the world tree and the presence of dragons (Snake Gorynych) brings Slavic mythology closer to German-Scandinavian. After a single community was divided into several tribes, beliefs began to acquire regional differences. For example, residents of the Oka and Volga experienced unique influence mythology of the Finno-Ugric peoples.

Slavery among the Eastern Slavs

According to the official version, slavery was widespread among the Eastern Slavs of the early Middle Ages. Prisoners were taken, as usual, in war. For example, Arab writers of the time claimed that the Eastern Slavs took many slaves in their wars with the Hungarians (and the Hungarians, in turn, took captured Slavs as slaves). These people were in a unique position. Hungarians are Finno-Ugric in origin. They migrated west and occupied territories around the middle reaches of the Danube. Thus, the Hungarians found themselves exactly between the southern, eastern and western Slavs. In this regard, regular wars arose.

The Slavs could sell slaves in Byzantium, Volga Bulgaria or Khazaria. Although most of them consisted of foreigners captured in wars, in the 8th century slaves also appeared among their own relatives. A Slav could fall into slavery due to a crime or violation of moral standards.

Supporters of a different version defend their point of view, according to which slavery as such did not exist in Rus'. On the contrary, slaves sought to these lands because here everyone was considered free, because Slavic paganism did not sanctify unfreedom (dependence, slavery) and social inequality.

Varangians and Novgorod

The prototype of the ancient Russian state arose in Novgorod. It was founded by the Ilmen Slovenians. Until the 9th century, their history is known rather fragmentarily and poorly. Next to them lived the Varangians, who were called Vikings in Western European chronicles.

The Scandinavian kings periodically conquered the Ilmen Slovenes and forced them to pay tribute. Residents of Novgorod sought protection from foreigners from other neighbors, for which they invited their military leaders to reign in their country. So Rurik came to the banks of the Volkhov. His successor Oleg conquered Kyiv and laid the foundations of the Old Russian state.

Slavs- the largest group of related peoples in Europe, united by the proximity of languages ​​and common origin. Over time, they divided into three large groups - western, southern, eastern (ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). The first information about the Slavs is contained in the works of ancient, Byzantine, Arab and Old Russian authors. Ancient sources. Pliny the Elder and Tacitus (1st century AD) report wendah, who lived between the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes.

Tacitus noted the belligerence and cruelty of the Wends. Many modern historians see the Wends as ancient Slavs who preserved their ethnic unity and occupied approximately the territory of what is now South-Eastern Poland, as well as Volyn and Polesie. Byzantine sources often mentioned the Slavs. Procopius of Caesarea and Jordan built the contemporary Slavs - the Wends, Sklavins and Antes- to one root.

In ancient Russian sources, data on the East Slavic tribes is contained in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL), written by the Kyiv monk Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. He called the Danube basin the ancestral home of the Slavs. He explained the arrival of the Slavs to the Dnieper from the Danube by an attack on them by warlike neighbors who drove the Slavs out of their ancestral homeland. The second route of advance of the Slavs to Eastern Europe, confirmed by archaeological and linguistic material, passed from the Vistula basin to the area of ​​Lake Ilmen.

The Eastern Slavs settled across the East European Plain: from the Western Dvina to the Volga, from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. The Eastern Slavs had 100-150 tribes. The most powerful tribes were the Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Dregovichi, Polotsk, Krivichi, Radimichi and Vyatichi, Buzhan, White Croats, Ulichs and Tivertsi.

The neighbors of the Slavs in the east were nomadic peoples (steppe people) - Polovtsians, Alans, Pechenegs. In the north, the Slavs lived next to Varangians(Scandinavians), Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Merya, Mordovians, Ves), and in the south - with the Byzantine Empire. From the 7th century Volga Bulgaria and the Khazar Khaganate became the eastern neighbors of Kievan Rus.

The Slavs lived in a tribal system. At the head of the tribe was elder. With the advent of property stratification, the clan community was replaced by the neighbor (territorial) community - rope. The basis of the economic structure of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. While exploring the vast forest and forest-steppe spaces of Eastern Europe, the Slavs brought with them an agricultural culture.

In addition to shifting and fallow farming from the 8th century. AD In the southern regions, arable farming, based on the use of a plow with an iron share and draft animals, became widespread. The main grain crops were wheat, millet, barley, and buckwheat. Cattle breeding also played an important role. The Slavs had widespread hunting, fishing, beekeeping(collecting honey from wild bees), crafts developed.

Foreign trade was of great importance. The path ran through the lands of the Eastern Slavs " from the Varangians to the Greeks", connecting the Byzantine world through the Dnieper with the Baltic region.

The political basis of the alliances of the East Slavic tribes was "military democracy" - transition period before the creation of the state. The Slavs united in 15 military-tribal unions. The alliances were headed by military leaders - princes who carried out administrative and military functions.

Along with the prince and squad(professional warriors) among the Slavs, popular assemblies played a big role ( veche) on which they decided critical issues life of the tribe, including the choice of leaders. Only male warriors participated in the veche meetings.

The basis of the worldview of the Eastern Slavs was paganism- deification of the forces of nature, perception of the natural and human world as a single whole. Religious ceremonies were performed Magi- pagan priests. Sacrifices and rituals took place on temples, surrounded idols(stone or wooden images of deities).

With the transition to new types of management, pagan cults were transformed. At the same time, the most ancient layers of beliefs were not supplanted by new ones, but were layered on top of each other. IN ancient times The Slavs had a widespread cult of the Family and women in labor, closely associated with the worship of ancestors. The clan - the divine image of the clan community - contained the entire universe - heaven, earth and the underground abode of the ancestors. Subsequently, the Slavs increasingly worshiped Svarog - the god of the sky and his sons, Dazhd-God and Stribog - the gods of the sun and wind.

Over time, Perun, the god of thunder and lightning, who was especially revered as the god of war and weapons in the princely militia, began to play a major role. The pagan pantheon also included Veles (Volos) - the patron of cattle breeding and the guardian of the underworld of the ancestors, Mokosh - the goddess of fertility, etc. Among the patrons of the Slavs there were also gods of the lower order - brownies, mermaids, goblins, water creatures, ghouls, etc.

East Slavic tribes and their neighbors

The Slavs appeared in Eastern Europe around the middle of the 1st millennium and lived in the lands located between the Oder, Vistula, and Dnieper rivers, and from there they moved to the south (South Slavs), west (Western Slavs) and east ( East Slavs). Byzantine writers called the Slavs sklavins and antes

Modern East Slavs – Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. In the early Middle Ages, they formed a single Old Russian (or East Slavic) nationality, which was characterized by a common language and a homogeneous material and spiritual culture. That is, East Slavs- an ethnohistorical concept. The history of the Eastern Slavs begins from the period when the East Slavic language (Indo-European family) emerged from the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language. This happened in the 7th-8th centuries.

In the VIII-IX centuries. Slavs occupied the territory from Lake Peipus and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Black Sea in the south - Eastern European or Russian plain. Feature– a developed river system, the rivers flow slowly, but are long. The largest river system is Dneprovskaya. The territory of the Slavs is mainly forest.

East Slavic tribes

Buzhans- East Slavic tribe that lived on the river. Bug.

Volynians- a union of tribes that inhabited the territory on both banks of the Western Bug and at the source of the river. Pripyat.

Vyatichi- a union of tribes living in the basin of the upper and middle reaches of the Oka and along the river. Moscow.

Drevlyans - tribal union, which occupied in the 6th-10th centuries. the territory of Polesie, the Right Bank of the Dnieper, west of the glades, along the rivers Teterev, Uzh, Ubort, Stviga.

Dregovichi- tribal union of the Eastern Slavs.

Krivichi- tribal union of the Eastern Slavs 6-11 centuries. They occupied territory in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga, Western Dvina, as well as in the region of Lake Peipus, Pskov and Lake. Ilmen.

Polotsk residents- Slavic tribe, part of the Krivichi tribal union; lived along the banks of the river. Dvina and its tributary Polota, from which they got their name. The center of the land of Polotsk was the city. Polotsk.

Glade - a tribal union of Eastern Slavs that lived on the Dnieper, in the area of ​​modern Kyiv. One of the versions of the origin of Rus', mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years, is associated with the glades.

Radimichi- an East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the eastern part of the Upper Dnieper region, along the river. Sozh and its tributaries in the 8-9 centuries.

Rus- in sources of the 8th-10th centuries. the name of the people who participated in the formation of the Old Russian state.

Northerners-union of tribes that lived in the 9th-10th centuries. by pp. Desna, Seim, Sula.

Slovenian Ilmenskie - tribal union of Eastern Slavs in the territory Novgorod land, mainly in the lands around the lake. Ilmen, next to the Krivichi.

Tivertsy-a union of tribes that lived in the 9th - early. 12th centuries on the river Dniester and at the mouth of the Danube.

Ulichi- East Slavic union of tribes that existed in the 9th century. 10th centuries According to the Tale of Bygone Years, incriminate lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, Bug and on the shores of the Black Sea.

The ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” can tell a lot about the settlement of the East Slavic tribes. She tells us about the Polyans who lived in the Middle Dnieper region in the Kyiv region, their neighbors - the Drevlyans, who settled in the swampy and wooded Pripyat Polesie. At the northern end of the East Slavic world lived the Ilmen Slovenes, who settled along the shores of Lake Ilmen; the Dregovichi lived between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; their neighbors were the Krivichi, a huge array of which over time split into three branches: the Krivichi of Smolensk, Polotsk and Pskov; the neighbors of the clearings on the side of the steppe were northerners; the Radimichi lived in the Sozh River basin, and the Vyatichi lived in the Oka basin. At the southernmost tip of the East Slavic territory, almost on the coast of the Black Sea, the Ulichs and Tivertsi settled.

For a long time, historians did not trust this chronicle geographical scheme, but archeology at the beginning of the 20th century confirmed it. Helped here... women's jewelry. It turned out that one of the most common types of women's jewelry among the Eastern Slavs - temple rings - varies throughout the Russian Plain. It turned out that certain varieties of these decorations correspond to a certain settlement of one or another East Slavic “tribe”. Later, these observations were confirmed by the study of other elements of the material culture of the Eastern Slavs.

While settling over such a vast space, the Eastern Slavs encountered and entered into one or another relationship with the peoples who inhabited Eastern Europe before them or came here at the same time. It is known that the Balts lived right up to the area of ​​modern Moscow, as evidenced by the study of toponymy ( geographical names), which turn out to be very stable, persisting for centuries. The regions of the northeast were inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, and the south has long been inhabited by Iranian-speaking tribes - descendants of the Sarmatians already known to us. Military clashes gave way to periods of peaceful relations, assimilation processes took place: the Slavs seemed to draw these peoples into themselves, but they themselves changed, acquiring new skills, new elements of material culture. The synthesis and interaction of cultures is the most important phenomenon of the time of settlement of the Slavs across the Russian Plain, perfectly illustrated by data from archaeological excavations.

More complex were relations with those ethnic groups that were able to create fairly strong tribal alliances or even early state formations. One of these formations in the middle of the 7th century. was created by the Bulgarians. As a result of internal turmoil and external pressure, part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparukh, migrated to the Danube, where they subjugated the local South Slavic tribes. Another part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Batbai, moved to the northeast and settled in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama, creating the state of Bulgaria . This is the state for a long time represented real threat for the Eastern Slavs.

The Khazars were also Turkic tribes, who in the second half of the 7th century. began to press the Bulgarians. Over time, they also settled on the earth, creating their own early state formation, which covered vast territories of the North Caucasus, Lower Volga region, Northern Black Sea region and partly Crimea. The center of the Khazar Kaganate, as this formation came to be called (the Khazar ruler was called the Kagan), was located in the lower reaches of the Volga. There were not many ethnic Khazarian Turks, but the main population consisted of representatives of the so-called Saltovo-Mayak culture, which consisted of representatives of the multi-ethnic population of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs. Basically, the population of the Kaganate was pagan, but the Khazar elite adopted Judaism. Part of the East Slavic tribes, adjacent to the (very vague) borders of the Kaganate, had, according to the chronicle, to pay tribute to the Khazars.

A terrible danger for the Eastern Slavs also loomed from the north-west. The meager land of the Scandinavian Peninsula pushed large detachments of “seekers of glory and prey, drinkers of the seas” into Europe - the Normans, who were called Varangians in Rus'. The troops were led by Vikings, who mostly came from noble families. Seasoned in battles and sea voyages, armed with an effective weapon - an ax with a pointed bayonet, the Normans were a terrible danger for many European countries. The peak of Varangian raids on Slavic territories occurred in the 9th century.

In the fight against enemies, the military organization of the Slavic population, whose roots go back centuries, grew stronger. Like many other peoples, this is a system of hundreds, when each tribe fielded a hundred warriors led by a “sotsky,” and the union of tribes was, apparently, supposed to field a thousand, which is where the position of “thousand” comes from. The prince was one of the military leaders. The word “prince” is common Slavic, borrowed, according to linguists, from the ancient German language. This word originally meant the head of a clan, an elder. From sources we know about tribal leaders-princes. Over time, with the growth of the population, the tribe, divided into several clans, split into a number of related tribes, which formed a tribal union. Such tribal unions most likely were the chronicle “tribes” of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, etc. At the head of these unions were leaders towering above the leaders of the individual tribes that were part of the union.

Historical evidence of such princes is contained in the chronicle legend about Kiy and his descendants. The chronicle says: “And to this day the brothers (Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. - Author) To keep their reign more often in the fields, and in the ancient villages, their own, and the Dregovichi their own, and their Slovenians in Novgorod, and the other in Polot, like Polotsk.”

The Arab historian Masudi reports about the ancient Slavic prince Majak, and the Gothic historian Jordan, already known to us, reports about Prince Bozhe. Thus, in addition to the leaders of the tribes, there were also leaders of the tribal unions. These princes had different functions. The prince of the tribe could be elected for a time, during the period of hostilities. His power is small compared to the power of the leader of the tribal union. The power of the latter is constant, the functions are more varied. Such a prince had to deal with the internal construction of the union, collect, organize and lead the army, and be in charge in general foreign policy. These princes also performed some religious and judicial functions. In this they were helped by the council of elders, or, as ancient Russian monuments often call it, the city elders (chronicles use the terms “elders” and “city elders” as equivalent). In chronicle reports, the city elders act as authorized leaders of society, with whom the princes were forced to reckon. Even in the second half of the 10th century. - the turning point of Vladimir’s reign - they still participated in governance and influenced the course of events. The elders-advisers took part in the princely Duma, princely feasts, which performed an important social function - communication between the population and the prince. The city elders were the tribal nobility who dealt with civil affairs.

The prince was assisted in military affairs by his squad. It also originates in the depths of the primitive communal system, without in any way violating the pre-class social structure. The squad grew together with the prince and, like the prince, performed certain socially useful functions. Among the warriors, the prince was not a master, but first among equals.

Another important element of the socio-political structure was the veche. Tribal councils - popular assemblies - originate in ancient times. The Byzantine writer-historian Procopius of Caesarea (VI century) wrote about them, telling about the Antes and Sklavens. The study of the oldest documents about the veche indicates that the entire population, including the nobility, took part in it. The People's Assembly functioned continuously throughout the 9th-11th centuries, but over time, as tribal ties disintegrated, it became more active. The fact is that clan ties fetter a person; clan protection, which in ancient times was a blessing for any member of the clan, over time becomes an obstacle to the development of democratic government.

This triad - the prince, the council of elders and the people's assembly - can be found in many societies that experienced an archaic stage of development.