Coursework: Discussion as one of the forms of organizing the educational process for high school students. Hello Student Study Discussion Models

The main features of educational discussion is that it represents a purposeful and orderly exchange of ideas, judgments, opinions in a group for the sake of searching for truth (more precisely, truths), and all participants - each in their own way - participate in the organization of this exchange. The purposefulness of the discussion is not its subordination to didactic tasks, which are important only to the teacher, but a clear desire for every student to search for new knowledge - a guideline for subsequent independent work, knowledge of evaluation (facts, phenomena). Interaction and self-organization of participants - i.e. not taking turns answering students’ questions to each other, not making statements in anticipation of his assessment, but students turning to each other, discussing the ideas, points of view, problems themselves ; organizational efforts, compliance with the rules of discussion on the part of the students themselves.

Review studies on the use of discussion in various learning conditions indicate that it is inferior to presentation in terms of the effectiveness of information transfer, but is highly effective for consolidating information, creative comprehension of the studied material and the formation of value orientations.

Among factors for in-depth assimilation of material during the discussion foreign researchers name the following:

– familiarization of each participant during the discussion with the information that other participants have (exchange of information);

– admission of different, divergent opinions and assumptions about the subject under discussion;

– the ability to criticize and reject any of the opinions expressed;

–encouraging participants to seek group agreement in the form of a common opinion or solution.

Difficulties in conducting discussions.

The purposefulness of the discussion is most clearly manifested in reaching conclusions. However, here, as the experience of Western teachers shows, there is a certain contradiction. A real discussion should not turn into a didactic illustration, a means of formulating a predetermined thesis (although it often happens that discussion becomes an effective means of persuasion in a particular point of view). During a real discussion, each participant thinks freely and expresses his point of view, no matter how unpopular and unacceptable it may be to others.

Difficulties that are often emphasized in recommendations for teachers are the combination of an orderly course of discussion with a lack of regulation, politeness without hierarchical subordination in the class, lightness and ease, humor without swagger, etc. The leader of the discussion faces special tasks: he must not so much guide as stimulate, encourage participants to exchange points of view. The exchange of opinions between participants should occur freely, so that to an outsider the course of the discussion may even seem chaotic. Of course, a chaotic scattering of replicas is an extreme that must be avoided. However, Western educators are usually more concerned with the other extreme: reducing the discussion to a consistent exchange of questions and answers between teacher and students. This kind of work in the classroom, as stated, for example, by authoritative American didactics L. Clark and I. Starr, ceases to be a real discussion. Experience and research data show that in practice the moment of self-organization is sometimes pushed aside by the teacher’s concern for orderliness. In other words, many teachers, with their remarks, statements, and monologues, actually replace children’s self-organization with direct control. The interaction changes accordingly: students turn to the teacher as an arbiter. This also reduces the degree of independence of their cognitive search.

Intergroup dialogue. One of the most common in practice effective ways organizing an educational discussion that increases children's independence - dividing the class into small groups (five to seven people) and then organizing a kind of intergroup dialogue. In each of the small groups, the main roles of the function are distributed among the participants:

– “leader (organizer)” - his task is to organize a discussion of an issue, problem, to involve all members of the group in it;

– “analyst” – asks questions to the participants during the discussion of the problem, questioning the ideas and formulations expressed;

– “protocolist” – records everything that relates to solving the problem; after the end of the initial discussion, it is he who usually speaks in front of the class to present the opinion, position of his group;

– “observer” – his tasks include assessing the participation of each group member based on the criteria specified by the teacher.

The order of the class in this method of organizing a discussion is as follows:

1. Statement of the problem.

2. Dividing the participants into groups, distributing roles in small groups, explaining the teacher about the expected participation of students in the discussion.

3. Discussion of the problem in small groups.

4.Presenting the results of the discussion to the whole class.

5.Continuation of the discussion and summing up.

Start of discussion. The teacher must ensure that the students have a clear understanding of the subject and the general framework of the discussion, as well as the order in which it will be carried out. When organizing a discussion, Western educators pay attention to creating a favorable, psychologically comfortable environment, seeing it as the key to success. For example, the placement of participants should be such that everyone can see everyone's face - this is usually achieved by placing students in a circle. In terms of content, it is important to preliminary clarify the topic or question. The introductory part is structured in such a way as to update the information available to students, introduce the necessary information, and create interest in the problem.

Introductory part Emotional and intellectual mood for the upcoming discussion. The experience of conducting educational discussions has accumulated various options for organizing the introductory part. For example: a preliminary brief discussion of the issue in small groups (four to six students). You can also use a pre-set task for one or more students to speak to the class with an introductory problem message that reveals the formulation of the problem. Sometimes the teacher may use a short pre-questioning. In general, we can highlight and list a number of specific techniques for introducing discussions that are used in the experience of foreign schools:

– statement of the problem;

-role-playing game;

– demonstration of a filmstrip or film;

– demonstration of material (objects, illustrative material, etc.);

-invitation of experts (experts are people who are quite well and widely knowledgeable in the issues under discussion);

–use of news;

– tape recordings;

– dramatization, role-playing of any episode;

– stimulating questions, especially questions like “what?”, “how?”, “why?”, and “what happened if...?” etc.

The experience of conducting discussions shows that the use of any of the introductory techniques should be associated with a small investment of time - so as to lead students to the discussion itself as soon as possible. You should make every effort to avoid getting “stuck” on any of the introductory points, otherwise the discussion itself will be very difficult, if not impossible, to truly “get going.”

Guiding the Discussion: Using During the discussion, considerable skill is required from the teacher so that his participation is not reduced to directive remarks or expressing his own judgments. In terms of content, the main tool in the hands of the teacher is questions. Skillful use of questions, short recording of the key points of the current discussion on the board - these are the apparently simple techniques that an experienced teacher uses. What is important, however, is the type of questions and their nature. Long-term research and practice show the high effectiveness of open-ended questions that stimulate thinking - “divergent” or “evaluative” in their content. “Open” questions, unlike “closed” ones, do not require a short unambiguous answer (usually these are questions like “how?”, “why?”, “under what conditions?”, “what could happen if...?” etc. d.). “Divergent” questions (unlike “convergent”) do not imply the presence of a single correct answer; they encourage search and creative thinking. “Evaluative” questions are associated with the student developing his own assessment of a particular phenomenon, his own judgment on this issue. In the experience of foreign teachers, a number of techniques can be identified that help such a transition. All of them are associated with the teacher’s direct appeal to children with questions that encourage exploratory thinking, active formation and critical reflection of their own point of view.

Techniques that stimulate cognitive activity and creative initiative. Idea generation productivity increases when the teacher:

–gives time for students to think about their answers;

– avoids vague, ambiguous questions;

– pays attention to every answer (does not ignore any answer);

– changes the student’s course of reasoning, expands the thought or changes its direction (for example, asks questions like: “What other information can be used?”, “What other factors can influence?”, “What alternatives are possible here?”, etc.);

– complements and clarifies children’s statements by asking clarifying questions (for example, “You said that there are similarities here; what are the similarities?”, “What do you mean when you say...?” etc.);

– warns against excessive generalizations (for example: “On the basis of what data can it be proven that this is true under any conditions?”, “When, under what conditions will this statement be true?” etc.);

–encourages students to expand their thinking (e.g., “So you have the answer; how did you arrive at it? How can you show that it’s true?”).

Progress of the discussion.

In the experience of conducting educational discussions, a significant place belongs to the creation of an atmosphere of goodwill and attention to everyone. Thus, the absolute rule is a general interested attitude towards students, when they feel that the teacher listens to each of them with equal attention and respect, both to the individual and to the point of view expressed. But what about mistakes? This is one of the most complex issues, standing before the leader of the discussion. After all, another of the unconditional rules of discussion is to refrain from any kind of hidden or, especially, open expression of approval or disapproval. At the same time, of course, one should not ignore the illogicality of reasoning, obvious contradictions, unfounded, unsubstantiated statements. The general approach is to use tactful feedback (usually through questions) to clarify the basis of statements, the evidence that supports the opinion expressed, and encourage thinking about the logical consequences of the ideas expressed.

It is quite appropriate to ask the speaker to confirm or prove his statement, to refer to any information or sources, to clarify uncertainty. For example, ask: “What does this term mean?” or: “What exactly is the question we are trying to solve in this case?” etc. An important element of leading a discussion is the concentration of the entire course of the discussion on its topic, focusing the attention and thoughts of the participants on the issues under discussion. Sometimes when deviating from the topic it is enough

The structure of the educational discussion includes several stages. The first of which is introductory, provides for the updating of students’ knowledge, the creation of a discussion situation, and the formulation of a problem.

The second, main one, includes a direct discussion of the stated problem, during which the formation of skills and habits of mental activity is carried out, the development of socially valuable ways of behavior in the process of communication.

At the final stage, an analysis of the progress of the discussion, a generalization of its results, an assessment of the degree of implementation of the assigned tasks, an analysis of the speeches and behavior of the participants, errors and difficulties that arose during the discussion are proposed.

During the discussion, the following educational goals are realized:

1. mastery of logical analysis, the ability to formulate a problem, argue, prove the truth or falsity of judgments, highlight what is essentially important and secondary and on the basis of this come to productive conclusions.

2. mastering socially valuable methods of communication, which involves learning the ability to listen and understand another, understanding that most problems have multi-valued solutions and no one is able to fully take into account all aspects of the problem, the formation of a “decentration” position.

The facilitator of the educational discussion needs to consider the following points:

1. Do not force participants to follow in the discussion the order of ideas that are main from the teacher’s point of view. Let students act in the order dictated by their own interests.

2. You should not insist every time on discussing only those theoretical issues that are provided for training course. Let it develop in a way that is interesting to the students.

3. Don’t talk too much about little things important questions.

4. Try to reinforce theoretical ideas with practical exercises.

Necessary conditions The development of a productive discussion is the personal knowledge of the discussion participants, which they acquire in the process of independent work with problematic material, as well as with special literature.

During the educational discussion, a solution to the educational problem is provided, carried out under conditions of control by both the moderator and the participants in the discussion themselves. The nature of the discussion of the problem, methods of behavior, and relationships that have developed during the educational discussion can also be analyzed and discussed.

1. Formulate the purpose and topic of the discussion (what is being discussed, why the discussion is needed, to what extent the problem should be solved);

2. Set the discussion time (20-30-40 minutes or more).

3. To interest the participants in the discussion - to present the problem in the form of some kind of contradiction.

4. Achieve a clear understanding of the problem by all participants by checking this with control questions or asking participants to ask questions.

5. Organize an exchange of opinions and remarks (can be done in a circle).

6. Activate passive people (ask a question or request for help).

7. Collect as many proposals as possible for solving the problem being condemned (state your proposals after listening to the opinions of all participants).

Question 16. Method of case study analysis. Definition, goals, procedure. Training using this method is based on the analysis of a situation, which is a fact, an event that took place in the life experience of a particular person, or an incident from the experience of recognized “aces” in their professional activities. The situation is a detailed description or demonstration of the execution of any matter from any field of professional activity of a recognized specialist. The situation is presented for observation, analysis, and discussion, which can take place both in individual and group training.

This type of discussion stimulates an appeal to the experience of others, the desire to acquire theoretical knowledge to receive answers to the questions discussed. Discussion of various options for solving the same situation significantly deepens the experience of students: each of them can familiarize themselves with the solution options, listen to and weigh their many assessments, additions and changes. Goals: consolidation of theoretical knowledge and familiarization with examples of their practical use, development of analytical skills, incl. the ability to correctly use information, analyze unrefined tasks; developing the ability to formulate a task independently;

developing the ability to develop independent decisions and justify them; initiative development.

Purpose Analysis of the situation can be logically integrated into the lecture material, and used to sharpen attention to particularly significant content, introducing elements of problematic nature into the educational process. This can be a special lesson, completely focused on resolving the problem situation.

Procedure:

1. Description or demonstration of a situation. Moreover, the situation can be described by the presenter, but it can also be proposed by the students themselves in accordance with the given topic.

2. Familiarity with the situation (reading the description or observing the execution),

3. Identification of the problem,

4. Discuss it,

5. Making an appropriate decision.

To implement a communicative-interactive approach, learning based on discussion in the form of group collaboration and cooperation seems to be the most appropriate.

As the practice of teachers shows, in the process of teaching a foreign language, discussion is the closest to the natural and the most effective remedy activation of speech and mental processes, on the one hand, and as a speech-mental product of the final mastery of a foreign language. Thus, discussion acts as both a means and a goal of teaching foreign language speech. In specialized literature, the concept of “discussion” is used in a fairly broad sense. In the educational process - from simply asking questions and answering them through discussing the situation within the framework of a role-playing game, in various kinds of dramatizations, etc., to complex political, philosophical and scientific debates, in the natural conditions of public life. By endowing the phenomenon under study in this work with linguodidactic understanding, we do not confuse the concept of “discussion” with the concepts of “dispute”, “dispute”, “polemic”, “debate”. Discussion is understood as a process and experience of collective verbal and mental creativity in the educational process, when each student makes his own contribution to solving the problem, and when everyone learns from each other based on the accumulated shared experience that arises. While a dispute is a phase of discussion characterized by the irreconcilability of the positions of the parties, the primacy of a sophistical orientation and a transition to emotional level discussion at the expense of logic.

Discussion can be used both as a method and as a form, that is, it can be carried out within the framework of other classes and events, being their element. In teaching a foreign language at the senior level, discussion is the main type of game situation.

There are three functions of discussion in English classes: teaching, developing and educational.

The educational function of the discussion is determined by the opportunity provided to the participant to receive a variety of integrative information from the interlocutors, to test and clarify their ideas and views on the problem under discussion, to obtain and apply new lexical knowledge in the process of joint discussion.

The developmental function of discussion is associated with stimulating students’ creativity, developing their ability to logically and correctly build evidence of their ideas and views, increasing the communicative activity of schoolchildren, and their emotional involvement in the educational process.

Educational function. The influence of discussion on the student’s personal development is due to its value-oriented orientation, the creation of favorable conditions for the manifestation of individuality, self-determination in existing points of view on a certain problem, choosing one’s position, for developing the ability to interact with others, for forming motives for learning a language, and the ability to find points contact, correlate and coordinate your position with the positions of other participants in the discussion.

The discussion should be centered on the subject of discussion, a problem or a problematic task, requiring collective efforts, actions and verbal and mental resources and input from each participant in comprehending and formulating a solution.

Discussion, according to its functional characteristics and didactic capabilities, can be developing, speech-stimulating, educational, motivating and, naturally, a mental activity in the classroom, depending on the tasks set by the teacher. Two main types of discussion can be distinguished, depending on the functions it performs: “educational discussion” and discussion as a verbal and mental communicative activity. In our understanding, an educational discussion is

a) activation method educational material
b) a method of consolidating language material, i.e. a way to create strong auditory-speech-motor images.
c) the method of developing appropriate discussion skills.

In other words, one of the goals of educational discussion is to master basic speech communication skills.

From the point of view of the formal and substantive aspects, an educational discussion is a formal algorithmized method of decision-making and a substantive (informal), variable process.

In other words, mastering discussion speech at the beginning is characterized by the main direction from form to content, i.e. from educational material to the expression of meaning. Naturally, the student’s speech is not sufficiently logical, demonstrative, motivated, and emotional. The stage from content to form is characterized by “reasoning” speech in an adequate foreign language form. The language form does not constrain the student either when perceiving the statements of the participants in the discussion, or when formulating his own thoughts. Both the formal and substantive types of educational discussion are interconnected and, taking into account the individual and personal capabilities of students, are equally realized in the group.

The organization of the educational process based on discussion is focused on the implementation of active learning, aimed at the formation of reflective thinking, updating and organizing the experience of students, as the starting point for active communicative and dialogue activities aimed at joint development of the problem. As characteristic features The method is distinguished: group work of participants, interaction, active communication of participants in the process of work, verbal communication as the main form of interaction in the discussion process, ordered and guided exchange of opinions with the appropriate organization of the place and time of work, but based on the self-organization of participants, focus on achieving educational goals .

At the same time, the main feature of educational discussion is the search for truth based on the active participation of all listeners. The truth may also be that there is no single correct solution to a given problem. A review of research on the use of discussion in various learning conditions indicates that it is inferior in terms of the volume of information transmitted to direct presentation (lectures), but is highly effective for consolidating information, creative comprehension of the studied material and the formation of value orientation.

Group discussion increases the motivation and personal involvement of participants in solving the problems being discussed. Here they have to use not only knowledge foreign language, but also to formulate their own opinions and find means to defend their positions. Discussion encourages the development of lexical, grammatical, logical skills, the development of the ability to enter, continue and end a conversation, the ability to express one’s thoughts logically and consistently, while independently controlling one’s speech and correcting mistakes in a timely manner.

Of course, discussion in class contributes to more successful development of all components of language competence. The linguistic (actually language) component develops through the use of vocabulary introduced at the beginning of the event, as well as through existing knowledge, but sociolinguistic skills also develop, since a lesson-discussion is a certain communicative act. The development of the block of intercultural competence occurs due to the topics of the problems discussed. The block of professional and practical competence is represented by the development of the ability to work in a team, defend one’s point of view, and respect the opinions of others.

Types of discussions:

Discussions can be spontaneous, free and organized. This division of types of discussion is carried out in accordance with the degree of its organization: planning of speakers, their order, topics of reports, time of speech. At the same time, a spontaneous discussion according to these parameters is not regulated, but a free one involves determining the direction and time of speeches. An organized discussion is conducted according to regulations and in a pre-established order.

In general, the following types of discussions have become widespread in global pedagogical experience:

A round table is a conversation in which a small group of students (usually about 5 people) participates “as equals,” during which an exchange of opinions occurs both between them and with the rest of the audience.

A meeting of an expert group (“panel discussion”), at which the intended problem is first discussed by all group members (four to six participants with a pre-appointed chairman), and then they present their positions to the entire audience.

A forum is a discussion similar to a meeting of an expert group, during which this group exchanges opinions with the audience (class, group).

A symposium is a more formal discussion in which participants give presentations representing their points of view and then answer questions from the audience.

Debates are clearly formalized discussions built on the basis of pre-fixed speeches by participants - representatives of two opposing, rival teams (groups) - and refutations. A variant of this debate is parliamentary debate ("British debate").

Relay race - discussion is aimed at organizing a consistent discussion of proposed issues and aspects of one topic in small groups, followed by analysis and coordination of various approaches, and adoption of a collective decision.

The aquarium technique (Clark L. H., Staff I. S., 1991) is a special option for organizing a discussion in which, after a short group exchange of opinions, one representative from the team participates in a public discussion. Team members can assist their representative with advice through notes or during timeouts.

Network - participants are divided into groups of 5-10 people each. Each group receives a ball of thread. The discussion begins. The speaker holds the ball and expresses his opinion, then he passes the ball, without letting go of the thread, to the participant who also wants to take part in the discussion. So the ball is passed around one by one, and by the way the thread unwinds, you can see who participated in the discussion more and who less.

The goal of this form of work is to involve students in self-monitoring of speech behavior, i.e. give those who are taciturn the opportunity to speak, and those who are more active - make it clear that they need to pass the word on to others.

Onion - the class is divided into 2 equal groups. 2 circles are formed: internal and external. Students in the inner and outer circles face each other and begin communicating. A few minutes later, at the teacher’s command, they move one step to the right, as a result they continue communicating with the new partner. This form of work can be successfully used in so-called gathering activities, especially in exercises where time control is necessary.

Brainstorming (brain attack). This is one of the most well-known methods of finding original solutions to various problems and generating new ideas. Brainstorming was developed by Alex Osborne in 1953. The method is based on the assumption that one of the main obstacles to the birth of new ideas is “fear of evaluation”: students often do not express interesting, innovative ideas out loud for fear of encountering a skeptical or even hostile attitude towards them from the teacher and classmates. The purpose of brainstorming is to eliminate the evaluative component in the initial stages of idea creation. The classic brainstorming technique proposed by Osborne is based on two basic principles - “delaying judgment on an idea” and “from quantity comes quality.”

During brainstorming, the following rules must be followed:

During an attack, everyone is equal, there are no superiors or subordinates. There is no copyright on ideas. It is necessary to look for unusual, original ideas. All ideas are met with approval, and can be, and even should be, developed, no matter how fantastic they may be. Criticism is prohibited. The participants' task is not to demonstrate their knowledge, but to find a solution to the problem.

The widespread use of the brainstorming method has led to the creation of a number of modifications, including:

Delphi method (Delphi procedure). The method was proposed by O. Helmer. Provides for individual generation of ideas and their public defense.

Myslereshto method (Kalder H.Ya., Ruttas V.I., 1989). In accordance with this method, the procedure begins with the written registration of individual proposals, desires, and ideas of each participant. Then follows their “sifting” in small groups, that is, recording and generating proposals of common interest to all group members, drawing up summary proposals, presenting them for general discussion, commenting and supplementing, comparative evaluation in order to develop the best option and, finally, supplementing this variant with the most valuable additions of other groups.

Discussion-dialogue is most often used for joint discussion of educational, social and other problems, the solution of which can be achieved through mutual complementarity, group interaction on the principle of “individual contributions” or on the basis of coordination of different points of view, reaching consensus. The topics for such discussions are broad. At the stage of introduction to the discussion-dialogue, you can use such a technique as demonstrating materials. The presented statistical data serves as an excellent impetus for motivating the speech-and-thinking activity of the participants. Conflicting data stimulates students to express new, sometimes even completely unexpected, thoughts. It should be noted that at the first stage it is necessary to introduce vocabulary on the topic for more successful development of linguistic competence. During the discussion, i.e. at the second stage of the discussion-dialogue, students exchange opinions on the topic of their choice, based on the questions that the teacher asks them.

Among modern didactic searches, educational discussion has one of the prominent places. It is dialogical in its very essence - both as a form of organizing training and as a way of working with the content of educational material. Its use helps develop critical thinking and introduce young citizens to the culture of a democratic society. The “collateral result” of educational discussion is extremely significant – the formation of a communicative and discussion culture. In Russia, school practice turns to discussion not only as a form of organizing teaching and a way of working with the subject content of educational material, but also as an independent subject of study. In the programs of the Ministry of Education (1994), discussion - as a method of discussing and resolving controversial issues, as well as the rules for its conduct - are also included as a subject of study. Further we will see that the teacher’s appeal to discussion as a way of his work also presupposes a parallel series - direct teaching of discussion procedures.

The experience of educational discussions has accumulated in world pedagogy, starting from the first decades of the 20th century, in the pedagogical search of supporters of the “new education”. Over the past decades, the debate has become an increasingly stable part of pedagogical research in a number of countries. In socialist pedagogy, the use of discussion for natural reasons was not the subject of intensive development; This type of activity in teaching began to be mentioned in the 80s. with the caveat that the teacher must ensure the maturity of the students. In Soviet and Russian pedagogy, the use of discussion in teaching was studied and practically developed in the context of psychological research into educational activities, the dialogical construction of content and the course of education in the “dialogue of cultures” school, and was indirectly touched upon as one of the aspects of pedagogical communication. Now discussion is recognized as one of the most important forms of educational activity, stimulating student initiative and the development of reflective thinking. In traditional Russian categorical didactics, discussion was considered as one of the possible forms of learning 81, but was not specifically developed as a pedagogical tools teachers. Despite a deep psychological analysis of the possibilities of dialogue interaction in teaching 82 , in Russian pedagogy discussion as a way of constructing the educational process, the way a teacher works, has not yet been sufficiently developed.

Meanwhile, turning to the discussion, it would be unrealistic for the teacher to expect that everything will work out by itself. Experience indicates a slippage into the usual picture of classroom management, not always noticeable to the teacher himself, a latent fear that a lively discussion with the potential for disorder inherent in it can lead the educational process out of control. In other words, many teachers actually replace children's self-organization with direct control. The desire to “compress” the discussion, to make it “more compact,” often leads to a kind of degeneration of the discussion into an exchange of questions and answers between the teacher and students.

In modern schools in many countries, the discussion is well known, but the degree of its prevalence and teachers’ guidelines for its application are different. In the conditions of the socialist Polish school of the 80s. the famous Polish didactician V. Okon wrote: “The use of the discussion method is recommended in the case when students have a significant degree of maturity and independence in acquiring knowledge and formulating problems, in selecting and clearly presenting their own arguments, in substantive preparation for the topic of discussion.” However, how will students achieve a significant degree of maturity and independence and other qualities necessary to fully participate in discussion? Does the teacher need to wait for these qualities to mature or can they be formed? The answer to these somewhat rhetorical questions, from our point of view, may be to pose another, instrumental question: How make discussion a tool for building a developing educational process, how to stimulate independence in searching for information, the ability to select and present an argument, prepare to participate in a discussion, etc.? In search of answers to these important questions, we turn to developments that, over the years, have made the discussion an enduring part of both mass schooling and educational research.

Organization and self-organization

What is a moot discussion? The use of this type of educational work is so diverse, and its name is so popular that it often denotes a variety of ways to organize educational work, as long as they include the exchange of statements. Often, the name “discussion” also includes a discussion, the participants of which express additional and clarifying information and considerations. In contrast to a discussion as an exchange of opinions, a discussion is often called a discussion-dispute, a clash of points of view, positions, approaches, etc. At the same time, discussion is often confused with polemics, a purposeful, emotional, obviously biased defense of an already existing, formed and unchangeable position. The understanding of this method of learning includes the following features:

– the work of a group of people, usually acting as leaders and participants;

– appropriate organization of place and time of work;

– the communication process proceeds as interaction between participants;

– interaction includes speaking, listening, and using non-verbal expressive means;

– focus on achieving educational goals.

In definitions of this kind, as in many attempts to formalize the living educational process, the desire to describe and record visible signs often results in the evasion of the main, essential thing. In our opinion, the main features of educational discussion is that it represents a purposeful and orderly exchange of ideas, judgments, opinions in a group for the sake of searching for truth (more precisely, truths), and all participants - each in their own way - participate in the organization of this exchange. The purposefulness of the discussion is not its subordination to tasks that are important only to the teacher, but a clear desire for each student to search for new knowledge-guidance (for subsequent independent work), knowledge-evaluation (of facts, phenomena).

Interaction in an educational discussion is built not just on alternating statements, questions and answers, but on meaningfully oriented self-organization participants - that is, students turning to each other and to the teacher for an in-depth and diverse discussion of the ideas, points of view, and problems themselves. The essential feature of an educational discussion is the dialogical position of the teacher, which is realized in the special organizational efforts he undertakes, sets the tone for the discussion, and compliance with its rules by all participants.

It should be noted: we are talking about an ideal that not all teachers strive for and achieve. But is it possible to approach this ideal in a class with about thirty or even more students? It is no coincidence that in the world experience of using discussion in the classroom, participants are divided into subgroups from four to five to six to ten people. Contact between participants in an educational discussion is a circumstance that is not directly related to the subject content of training; however, it is precisely due to this circumstance that the discussion is associated with high student involvement in the discussion of the content. Communication during the discussion encourages students to look for different ways to express their thoughts, increases receptivity to new information, a new point of view; These personally developing results of the discussion are directly implemented on the educational material discussed in groups. Hence, attention to discussion not only as a means of activation, but also as a way of in-depth work with the content of the subject, going beyond the assimilation of factual information, and creative application of acquired knowledge. If at first the efforts of teachers are focused on the formation of discussion procedures, then later the teacher’s focus is not only on identifying different points of view, positions, methods of argumentation, their correlation and drawing up a more comprehensive and multifaceted vision of phenomena, but also comparison interp interpretations of complex phenomena, going beyond the immediate situation, searching for personal meanings. The more students learn to think in terms of contrastive comparisons, the greater their creative potential becomes.

(a) familiarization of each participant during the discussion with the information that other participants have (exchange of information);

(b) encouraging different approaches to the same subject or phenomenon;

(d) the opportunity to criticize and reject any of the opinions expressed;

(e) encouraging participants to seek group agreement in the form of a common opinion or solution.

In relation to teaching history, the experience of conducting discussions was expressively formulated by the famous American teacher and cultural researcher J. Barzun.

Conducting a discussion based on historical materials should begin by posing a specific historical question. In no case should it be formulated in the spirit of who was right and who was wrong. The focus should be on the possibilities of the course of events. What was possible under this or that set of circumstances? What actions could this or that historical figure take to achieve this goal or what actions could he refrain from? Did this goal reflect the actual interests of the social group he represented? Were alternative actions possible? etc.

All student statements must relate to the topic under discussion and be related to the points of view expressed - develop, amend, or reject previously expressed judgments. The teacher should identify factual errors by questioning inaccurate statements and encouraging students to make corrections, since it is impossible to build reasoning on incorrect grounds. All statements, with the exception of factual ones, must be accompanied by substantiation. The teacher encourages this by asking questions like: “What are the facts that support your opinion?”, “How did you reason when you came to this conclusion?” As a result of the discussion, the group may come to a consensus, but more often there will be differences in which subgroups or individual participants remain convinced of their own opinion. This circumstance is also extremely instructive.

The problem of orderliness

Although the discussion is by no means reduced to a set of monologues, it does not imply disordered polyphony. When building it as a group dialogue, subordinated to a specific task, it is necessary to ensure that the participants have the necessary training on the subject of discussion. Not every topic can be the subject of discussion. Not every topic should become one: discussion is not an end in itself; its subject should be truly controversial, ambiguous topics.

The purposefulness of the discussion is most clearly manifested in reaching conclusions. However, here, as the experience of Western teachers shows, there is a certain contradiction. A real discussion should not turn into a didactic illustration, a means of formulating a predetermined thesis (although it often happens that discussion becomes an effective means of persuasion in a particular point of view). During this discussion, each participant thinks freely and expresses his point of view, no matter how unpopular and unacceptable to others it may turn out to be.

Difficulties that are often emphasized in recommendations for teachers are the combination of an orderly flow of discussion with a lack of regulation, politeness without hierarchical subordination in the classroom, lightness and ease, humor without swagger, etc. The leader of the discussion faces special tasks: his task is not so much to guide as to stimulate, to encourage participants to exchange points of view. The exchange of opinions between participants should occur freely - so that to an outsider the course of the discussion may even seem chaotic. Of course, a chaotic scattering of cues is an extreme that must be avoided. However, Western educators are usually more concerned about the other extreme: reducing the discussion to a consistent exchange of questions and answers between the teacher and the students - this kind of work in the classroom ceases to be a real discussion.

Experience and research data show that in practice, the moment of self-organization is sometimes pushed aside by the teacher’s concern for orderliness, in other words, many teachers, with their remarks, statements, and monologues, actually replace children’s self-organization with direct control. The interaction changes accordingly: students turn to the teacher as an arbiter. This also reduces the degree of independence of their cognitive search. The reason lies in, perhaps not always noticeable to the teacher himself, a slippage into the usual picture of classroom management, a latent fear that a lively discussion with the potential for disorder inherent in it can lead the educational process out of control. The time factor also plays a significant role: the freer and livelier the exchange of opinions, the more difficult it becomes for the teacher to adhere to a fixed time frame. The desire to “compress” the discussion, to make it “more compact,” often leads to a kind of degeneration of the discussion into an exchange of questions and answers between the teacher and students; (see Fig. 4.1. and Fig. 4.2.).

Rice. 4.2. Scheme of interaction in a discussion with a high level of search activity

The experience of organizing educational discussions, accumulated in world practice, psychological and pedagogical developments, shows that the didactic functions of discussion are associated with two types of tasks:

(1) tasks of a specific content plan;

(2) tasks of organizing interaction in a group (class), subgroups.

The scope of tasks of the first type includes:

– children’s awareness of contradictions and difficulties associated with the problem under discussion;

– updating previously acquired knowledge;

– creative rethinking of the possibilities of their application, their inclusion in a new context, etc.

The scope of tasks of the second type includes:

– distribution of roles in groups-teams;

– performing a collective task;

– consistency in discussing the problem and developing a common, group approach;

– compliance with specially adopted rules and procedures for joint search activities, etc.

Pedagogically important are the results obtained “at the intersection” of specific content-based activities and interaction activities in the group:

– processing of information, information specifically for convincing presentation;

– presentation of one’s point of view as a position, its argumentation;

– selection and weighing of approaches to solving the problem;

– possible application of an approach or point of view as a result of a conscious choice, etc.

These kinds of results, in fact, follow from the context of jointly distributed learning activities, the method of organization of which is discussion. In socio-psychological studies of communicative-dialogue activities in discussion groups, it was found that during a discussion in a group, a participant is usually identified who makes the greatest contribution to the meaningful elaboration of the group task (clarification and clarification of initial information, making proposals on the progress of joint work, expressing new ideas , opinions, etc.). Along with this, another discussion leader is often identified, whose statements and actions encourage participants to speak out, support everyone’s inclusion in the discussion, and create an overall favorable atmosphere. Research has shown that a leader who is focused (and, accordingly, orients the group) exclusively on completing the task at hand, evokes a respectful attitude among other participants, but gradually, over time, this begins to give way to growing irritation. The most favorable attitude of the participants is caused by an emotional leader, whose friendly statements support the working atmosphere and teamwork.

The data presented relate primarily to the teacher, since he is usually the organizer of the discussion and the leader during the discussion. The two named ways of exercising leadership, which we can designate as “content-targeted” and “procedural-emotional,” are identified in studies as separate and isolated. Such separation does not necessarily exist in practice. In essence, we are talking about two complementary aspects of the same activity of the group discussion leader. The teacher, in principle, may be able to combine them. However, it should be emphasized the high requirements for its personalities, which are related to the construction of the educational process based on discussion.

Didactic goals and types of discussions. Problematic

The discussion should not be turned into a pseudo-discussion, a pseudo-search for solutions that are known in advance to the teacher and could be presented in the usual way. In a number of cases, however, discussion serves as a way for students to discover and formulate ideas that are obviously familiar to the teacher and were envisaged by him - at least as possible results of the discussion. And yet, the problematic nature of discussion for students is an invariable didactic guideline for all methodological developments.

Let us pay attention to the similarities between solving a problem by an individual (individual) and a joint search for solutions (group). This similarity can be traced both in the content and in the sequence of stages of creative thinking. In a group discussion of a problem, the following sequence of stages can be outlined, similar to the stages of individual problem formulation and solution.

1. Search and definition of a problem or difficulty that can be solved by group methods (by developing a common approach, achieving consensus).

2. Formulation of the problem during group analysis and discussion.

3. Analysis of the problem in order to identify the facts and circumstances associated with it.

4. Attempts to find solutions to the problem (this can be a long process, including discussions, data collection, involvement of external, extraneous sources of information, etc. Along the way, the group makes preliminary, “working” conclusions, collects opinions, makes reviews and etc. – gradually moving towards reaching consensus).

5. Formulation of conclusions, their discussion and verification - up to reaching a final decision.

A comparison of individual and group problem solving has been steadily carried out over the past decades in foreign didactic literature. The given sequence represents the most detailed version of a group solution to the problem. In practice, there are often discussions in which the problem is posed and sometimes formulated by the teacher. In addition, checking conclusions, as well as reaching a final decision or decisions, is not always possible, and the teacher often emphasizes the conditional, working nature of the conclusions and conclusions made. Thus, in the actual educational process, the teacher does not focus on everyone, but usually on one or more central stages of group problem solving.

Teachers focused on the development of creative thinking recommend structuring an educational discussion in such a way as to give students the opportunity to make their own decisions, analyze the various ideas and approaches that arise in them, and build actions in accordance with their decisions. However, the traditional lesson is taught in a different spirit. How to make the transition from a regular lesson to a lively creative discussion of the topic, a vision of the problems inherent in it?

One of the options for such a transition is a type of discussion common in practice, which in some didactic developments is called evolving, that is, growing out of more traditional types of educational work. Such a discussion arises as if by itself, naturally. However, in order for it to arise, appropriate conditions are necessary. In other words, children in a regular lesson should have the opportunity to discuss their thoughts and opinions with the teacher and with each other. This means that the teacher himself must be attuned to the possibility of such a discussion and be interested in the children’s statements. In this case, the teacher’s interaction with children is aimed at development, deepening the children’s thoughts, and leads to an educational discussion.

Summarizing the materials characterizing the experience of educational discussions allows us to build the following sequence of development, increasing the degree of initiative of the participants:

–discussion with the teacher as the leader (“evolving” discussion);

–discussion with the student as the leader;

–discussion without a leader (self-organizing).

Forms of discussion

In the world pedagogical experience, a number of methods for organizing the exchange of opinions, which are compressed forms of discussions, have become widespread. These include:

“round table” is a conversation in which a small group of students (usually about five people) participates “as equals,” during which an exchange of opinions occurs both between them and with the “audience” (the rest of the class);

A “panel meeting” (usually four to six students, with a pre-appointed chairperson) in which the intended problem is first discussed by all group members, and then they present their positions to the whole class. In this case, each participant delivers a message, which, however, should not develop into a long speech;

“forum” is a discussion similar to a “meeting of an expert group”, during which the group enters into an exchange of views with the “audience” (class);

“symposium” - a more formalized discussion than the previous one, during which participants make presentations representing their points of view, after which they answer questions from the “audience” (class);

“debate” is an obviously formalized discussion built on the basis of pre-fixed speeches by participants-representatives of two opposing, rival teams (groups) - and refutations. A variant of this type of discussion is the so-called “British debate”, which reproduces the procedure for discussing issues in the British Parliament. In them, the discussion begins with a speech by representatives from each side, after which the platform is provided for questions and comments from participants in turn from each side;

“court hearing” – a discussion simulating a trial (hearing a case).

We have provided the most detailed list various types discussions, although in practice they are often designated by the same word - “discussion”. The so-called “aquarium technique” stands somewhat apart from them. This name was given to a special variant of organizing collective interaction, which stands out among the forms of educational discussion. This type of discussion is usually used when working with material whose content is associated with contradictory approaches, conflicts, and disagreements. Procedurally, the “aquarium technique” looks like this.

(1) stopping the problem, presenting it to the class comes from the teacher.

(2) The teacher divides the class into subgroups. They are usually arranged in a circle.

(3) The teacher or members of each group select a representative who will represent the group’s position to the entire class.

(4) Groups are given time, usually short, to discuss the problem and determine a common point of view.

(5) The teacher asks group representatives to gather in the center of the class to express and defend the position of their group in accordance with the instructions received from it. No one except the representatives has the right to speak, but group members are allowed to convey instructions to their representatives by notes.

(6) The teacher may allow representatives as well as groups to take time out for consultation.

(7) The “aquarium” discussion of the problem between representatives of the groups ends either after a predetermined time has elapsed or after a solution has been reached.

(8) After such a discussion, it is critiqued by the whole class.

This version of the discussion is interesting because the emphasis is on the very process of presenting a point of view and its argumentation. The inclusion of all participants is achieved by everyone participating in an initial group discussion, after which the group follows the work with interest and maintains contact with its representatives. There are only five or six speakers in the field of attention of the entire class, this concentrates perception on the main positions. The very method of “aquarium” arrangement of the class is borrowed from the practice of conducting group psychological trainings and allows students to experience the subtleties of behavior of the central participants - representatives of the groups. The subsequent discussion allows the teacher to highlight both the substantive and procedural aspects of the discussion. The “aquarium technique” not only enhances children’s involvement in group discussion of problems, develops skills for participation in group work and joint decision-making, but also makes it possible to analyze the course of interaction between participants at the interpersonal level.

Size of subgroups. Preparing the discussion: creating temporary groups

Over the past decades, the allocation of small temporary groups in the classroom has become a common technique, the basis for enhancing interaction between students. The usual number of participants is five to six people. The class division is carried out promptly, for a limited time (usually five to six minutes). The groups are given tasks of an “intermediate” nature, that is, those that prepare the ground for the next stage of the educational process.

Temporary Group Tasks

Preparing a class discussion:

Reconsidering and reformulating the goals of a discussion that has reached a dead end;

Conducting a brainstorming session;

Development of rules;

Exchange of ideas and personal experience;

Setting questions and problems for an upcoming educational study or for a class-wide discussion, determining the circle of invited expert speakers, etc.;

Identifying and discussing disagreements and discrepancies;

Fast updating and exchange of information gleaned from different sources;

Despite the ease of organizing temporary groups, the experience of Western teachers shows that their use should be planned in advance. Usually, only experienced teachers allow themselves to improvisely include such a division of the class into subgroups into the lesson. The purely temporary nature of these groups does not require the teacher to make any special selection of participants: groups can be completed according to the currently available seating chart for students, alphabetically, by lot with numbered cards, etc. The group must have at least three and no more than six people.

When working with small temporary groups, the teacher keeps three main points in mind: goal, time, results. Groups should receive clear guidance from the teacher about what kind of outcome is expected from their discussion. It is better to choose a time frame that is more compressed than extended; if necessary, the time can be extended; a leader should be identified within the group; the reporting procedure must be known to students in advance.

After discussion, the groups report their results. Typically, each group assigns one representative to the speaker. Representatives may form a temporary expert council that will discuss the proposals. In many cases, simply writing a list of sentences or main ideas on the board or overhead projector is sufficient. Sometimes the teacher moves the class to a general discussion without even listening to messages in between.

Intergroup dialogue

One of the most effective ways to organize an educational discussion in practice, which increases the independence of children, is to divide the class into small groups (five to seven people) and then organize a kind of intergroup dialogue. In each of the small groups, the main roles and functions are distributed among the participants:

Distribution of roles and functions in a discussion group

“Leader” (organizer) - his task is to organize a discussion of an issue or problem, and to involve all members of the group in it.

“Analyst” – asks questions to the participants during the discussion of the problem, questioning the ideas and formulations expressed.

“Protocolist” – records everything that relates to solving the problem; After the end of the initial discussion, it is he who usually speaks in front of the class to present the opinion, position of his group.

“Observer” - his task is to evaluate the participation of each group member based on the criteria set by the teacher.

The order of the class in this method of organizing a discussion is as follows:

(1) Statement of the problem.

(2) Dividing participants into groups, assigning roles in small groups, and teacher explanations about what is expected of students to participate in the discussion.

(3) Discussion of the problem in small groups.

(4) Present the results of the discussion to the whole class.

(5) Continuing the discussion and summing up.

Start of discussion

Conducting discussions is associated with a considerable number of pitfalls. The teacher's noticeable difficulties are often associated with starting a discussion. Since discussion is less rigidly fixed than other, more familiar types of educational work, the teacher needs to ensure that students have a clear idea of the subject and the general scope of the discussion, as well as the order of its | carrying out. When organizing a discussion, Western teachers pay special attention to creating a favorable, psychologically comfortable environment, seeing it as the key to success. For example, the seating arrangement should be such that everyone can see everyone's face - this is usually achieved by placing students in a circle. In terms of content, it is important to preliminary clarify the topic or question. The introductory part is structured in such a way as to update the information available to students, introduce the necessary information, and create interest in the problem.

The introductory part is an important and necessary element of any discussion, since students need both an emotional and intellectual mood for the upcoming discussion. The experience of conducting educational discussions has accumulated various options for organizing the introductory part. For example, a preliminary brief discussion of the issue in small groups (four to six students). It is typical to introduce the topic through a pre-set task for one or more students to speak to the class with an introductory problem message that reveals the formulation of the problem. Sometimes the teacher may use a short pre-questioning. Any of the introductory techniques should be associated with a small investment of time, so as to bring students to the discussion itself as quickly as possible.

Techniques for introducing discussion:

Statement of the problem or description of a specific case;

Role-playing game;

Film screening;

Demonstration of material (objects, illustrative material, etc.);

Invitation of experts (experts are people who are quite well and widely knowledgeable in the issues under discussion);

Use of current news;

Tape recordings;

Staging, role-playing an episode;

Stimulating questions - especially questions like “what?”, “how?”, “why?” and “what would happen if...?” etc.

Experience in conducting discussions shows that one must avoid getting “stuck” on any of the introductory points, otherwise the discussion itself will be very difficult, if not impossible, to truly “get going.”

Guiding the Discussion: Using Questions

As the discussion progresses, the teacher is required to ensure that his participation is not limited to directive remarks or expressing his own judgments. In terms of content, the main tool in the hands of the teacher is questions. Let us pay attention to the nature of the questions. Many years of research and practice show the high effectiveness of open-ended questions that stimulate thinking - “divergent” or “evaluative” in their content. “Open” questions, unlike “closed” ones, do not require a short unambiguous answer (usually these are questions like “how?”, “why?”, “under what conditions?”, “what could happen if...?” etc.). “Divergent” questions (unlike “convergent”) do not require a single correct answer; they encourage search and creative thinking. “Evaluative” questions are related to the student’s development of his own assessment of this or that phenomenon, his own judgment.

Let us highlight techniques that help this transition. All of them are associated with the teacher’s direct appeal to children with questions that encourage exploratory thinking, active formation and critical reflection of their own point of view.

Idea generation productivity increases when the teacher:

Allows time for students to think about answers;

Avoids vague, ambiguous questions;

Pays attention to every answer (does not ignore any answer);

Changes the student’s course of reasoning - expands the thought or changes its focus (for example, asks a question like: “What other information can be used?”, “What other factors can influence?”, “What alternatives are possible here?”, etc.) ;

Clarifies and clarifies children’s statements by asking clarifying questions (for example: “You said that there are similarities here; what are the similarities?”, “What do you mean when you say...?”, etc.);

Warns against overgeneralizations (for example: “On the basis of what data can it be proven that this is true under any conditions?”, “When, under what conditions will this statement be true?”, etc.);

Encourages students to expand their thinking (e.g., “So you have the answer; how did you arrive at it? How can you show that it is true?”).

One of the everyday details of an educational discussion is the teacher’s questions and the students’ answers. Pedagogical research has shown that such a “trifle” as the length of the pause that a teacher makes while waiting for an answer to a question addressed to a student significantly affects the nature of educational dialogue and interaction in the classroom.

In the late 60s and early 70s, a group of American educators, led by M. Rowe, noticed that during educational discussions, teachers, as a rule, expected students to answer their questions in less than one second. At the same time, some teachers showed more patience, and their picture of interaction in the classroom was different: the students’ answers were fuller and deeper in content, their speech was more detailed. The research was conducted with teachers who taught science in primary schools (up to the eighth year of schooling), and the experimental program included training the teachers themselves, their training in giving students more time to think about the answer. It turned out that when a teacher pauses for three to five seconds while waiting for an answer to his question, the picture of learning changes:

– the duration of responses increases;

– the number of statements is increasing, which, although they do not answer the question posed, certainly relate to the topic under discussion;

– children’s confidence increases;

– the creative direction of children’s thinking is enhanced; interaction between students;

– students’ judgments become more demonstrative;

– students ask more questions;

– offer more ideas, joint learning activities (experiments, practical tasks, exercises, projects, etc.);

–increases the involvement of children with low learning rates;

– the range of educational actions expands, the interaction between children increases (they react more often to each other’s statements), their interaction with the teacher becomes closer (the frequency of reactions to control influences and the teacher’s organizational cues increases).

In turn, the purposeful increase in the duration of pauses by teachers affected teaching in general:

– the variety of teacher actions increased;

– the number and nature of questions asked by students changed: there were fewer of them, and they became more meaningful;

– the teacher’s expectations and his attitudes towards the children’s capabilities changed; teachers focused less attention on capable students, treated lagging students more favorably, and involved them more widely in the educational process.

The effect caused by an increase in the length of the time interval between a question and an answer (it was called the “waiting pause”) turned out to be so significant that in the seventies a number of studies were devoted to it (research

carried out in primary and secondary schools in the USA, Australia and Thailand). The teachers participating in them underwent special training programs to increase the “waiting pause”, which included in some cases micro-teaching, in others mini-courses, special exercises to imitate classroom techniques, not to mention the study of special text materials (some of the research was carried out with the participation of trainee teachers who have not yet completed the training course). Researchers began to distinguish two types of waiting intervals:

– “Waiting pause-1” – between the teacher’s question and the student’s answer.

– “Waiting pause-2” – between the student’s answer and the teacher’s reaction to it. This second type of pause in to a greater extent controlled by the teacher himself. Thus, in the seventies and eighties, more detailed studies showed that increasing the duration of both types of “waiting pauses” leads to positive changes in the atmosphere of the educational process, students’ motivation, their attitude to the subject, and involvement in the discussion.

At the same time, the authors of one of the studies also noted the opposite effect: some high school students—mostly girls—perceived lessons in which the teacher increased the duration of the “waiting pause” as slower in pace, and they had a tendency to “switch off.” Only some studies have found noticeable positive changes in learning outcomes (academic performance), and there is no reliable research data on this yet. It is necessary to take into account the assumption of the American researcher S. Tobias that changing the duration of waiting pauses can be effective only if it is accompanied by high-level cognitive activity - both in students (during pauses of the first type) and in the teacher (during pauses of the second type). Thus, for students, pauses of the first type will be productive if they are used to actively think about the meaning of the question asked by the teacher and draw on existing knowledge. However, the desire of the teacher alone is not enough for this, and research encourages us to pay attention to this.

So, in itself, providing time for reflection, encouraging the search for answers, and the exploratory focus of the teacher’s questions can ensure student motivation and engagement, but do not yet guarantee results at a higher cognitive level. This finding reminds us of the need to specifically teach the search procedures themselves.

Progress of the discussion

In conducting educational discussions, a significant place belongs to creating an atmosphere of goodwill and attention to everyone. Thus, the absolute rule is a general interested attitude towards students, when they feel that the teacher listens to each of them with equal attention and respect - both to the individual and to the point of view expressed.

One of the most difficult questions facing a discussion leader is: response to errors students. An unconditional rule for conducting a discussion, highlighted in foreign pedagogy, is to refrain from any kind of - hidden or even more open - expression of approval or disapproval. At the same time, the teacher does not ignore illogical reasoning, obvious contradictions, unfounded, unsubstantiated statements. The general approach is to use tactful feedback (usually through questions) to clarify the basis of statements, the evidence that supports the opinion expressed, and encourage thinking about the logical consequences of the ideas expressed. The teacher can ask the speaker to confirm or prove his statement, refer to any information or sources, or clarify uncertainty. For example, ask: “What does this term mean?” or “What exactly is the question we are trying to solve in this case?” etc.

An important element of leading a discussion is to focus the entire course of the discussion on its topic, focusing the attention and thoughts of the participants on the issues being discussed. Sometimes, in cases of deviation from the topic, it is enough to note: “It seems that we have moved away from the topic of discussion...”. In some cases, it is necessary to make a special stop or pause. (During a lengthy discussion, an intermediate summary of the discussion is carried out. To do this, a pause is made, the presenter asks a specially appointed recorder to summarize the discussion at the current moment so that the class can better navigate the directions for further discussion.) Summing up the current results of the discussion, the teacher usually stops at one of following points of discussion:

Summary of what was said on the main topic;

Review of the presented data, factual information;

Summarizing, reviewing what has already been discussed and issues to be discussed further;

Reformulation, retelling of all conclusions made so far;

Analysis of the progress of the discussion up to the current moment.

The requirement for summing up - both during and at the end of the discussion - is brevity, meaningfulness, and reflection of the entire spectrum of reasoned opinions. At the end of the discussion, the overall result is not only and not so much the end of reflection on a given problem, but a guideline for further reflection, a possible starting point for moving on to the study of the next topic.

Studying controversial current issues

In Soviet pedagogy, the study of controversial topical issues, in fact, fell out of the field of view of pedagogical science and was not encouraged (if not persecuted) in the practice of school teachers. Meanwhile, now the social situation in our country makes it impossible to remove the educational process from current issues. In addition, the study of material related to ambiguous issues that do not have a generally accepted, established solution provides especially ample opportunities for the development of creative thinking. As an analysis of foreign developments shows, the study of controversial, urgent issues in educational discussion is subject to the tasks of forming a discussion culture, socially significant qualities of students (critical thinking, tolerance, receptivity and respect for other people’s points of view, etc.).

Discussion issues are openly social in nature, so their main place is in public courses. Resolving a controversial issue as such is not a didactic goal - it is determined by the development of students’ thinking and communication skills. In this sense, the focus of learning is more procedural than substantive, and is associated not so much with the development of factual information in itself, ready-made conclusions, but with the development of the ability to approach contradictory phenomena, weigh different points of view and, most importantly, show susceptibility to their very content, tolerance to the existence of opponents. Thus, discussion of controversial topical issues is favorable material for the formation of personal qualities that are inextricably linked with the nature of knowledge of the world.

Abroad, the traditions of educational discussion of controversial topical issues were laid down in the first decades of our century, when the transfer of existing social institutions into school life (the creation of school self-government bodies, school courts, the press, etc.) became widespread. This practice naturally included discussion of a wide range of issues and topics that might be relevant to students; and at the same time, however, they went beyond the educational process. In our pedagogy over recent years, the intensification of learning, its appeal to both the wider social and immediate environment, is accompanied by an increasing turn of the school to social issues, its inclusion in the scope of school education. IN modern school when studying a number of topics in the humanities and social sciences, a special appeal to the discussion of current controversial issues is possible (of course, it must be thoughtful!). Let us give an example from a foreign development for teachers, taking into account many years of experience in discussing pressing topical issues.

Incorporating hot-button issues into educational discussions

Hot topical issues are controversial issues that cause strong reactions among part of the population.

Studying hot topical issues in school is acceptable; students need experience in addressing these types of topics and issues. Their study at school should be impartial, comprehensive, and should help students navigate these types of issues in the future.

When studying controversial issues at school, indoctrination is unacceptable; the goal of such study should be the ability to approach issues from different angles.

A teacher conducting a study of a controversial issue requires good preparation. Misinformation among students is even worse than lack of information.

The decision about whether to include controversial issues in the discussion should be based on their relevance, the preparedness and maturity of the students, and the goals and objectives of the school.

Choosing a discussion topic to study in class is always problematic for a teacher. The main criteria used in practice and recommended for practice were developed empirically, experimentally, they can be combined into two main ones - relevance And convenience for the educational process. If we expand on them in more detail, the list of guidelines for the teacher will include the following:

Guidelines for teachers in choosing a topic; _______________________

Correspondence of the topic to didactic tasks;

Meaning and timeliness, significance for all members of society,

The preparedness of the teacher himself;

Sufficient maturity of students to understand and study in detail;

Students do not experience excessive emotional tension associated with this problem.

Subject of special attention of the teacher:

Students’ independence of judgment;

The inadmissibility of any open or indirect pressure from the teacher, or his support of this or that point of view;

Opportunity for students to come to their own decisions.

Of course, the teacher can express his opinion, however, in order to prevent its influence on the students, this usually happens towards the end of the discussion; at the very beginning, the teacher is recommended to warn the class that the purpose of the discussion is not to achieve a single and “only correct” point of view.

To prevent or relieve excessive emotional intensity of the discussion, the teacher can introduce a number of rules from the very beginning. These include, for example, the following.

This teaching method consists of conducting educational group discussions on a specific problem in relatively small groups of students (from 6 to 15 people).

Traditionally, the concept of “discussion” refers to the exchange of opinions in all its forms. The experience of history shows that without an exchange of opinions and the accompanying debates and disputes, no development of society is possible. This is especially true for development in the sphere of spiritual life and professional development of a person.

Discussion as a collective discussion can be of a different nature depending on the process being studied, the level of its problematic nature and, as a consequence, the judgments made.

Although in scientific pedagogical literature discussions are not classified according to the components of activity (subject, object, means, goals, operations, needs, conditions, results), in practice discussion is considered as a universal phenomenon, which, in essence, can be mechanically transferred without change from one area to another, for example, from science to professional pedagogy or methods of teaching a professionally oriented foreign language.

An educational discussion differs from other types of discussions in that the novelty of its problems relates only to the group of people participating in the discussion, i.e., the solution to the problem that has already been found in science will have to be found in the educational process in this audience.

For a teacher organizing an educational discussion, the result, as a rule, is already known in advance. The goal here is a search process that should lead to objectively known, but subjectively, from the students’ point of view, new knowledge. Moreover, this search should naturally lead to the task planned by the teacher. This can be, in our opinion, only if the search for a solution to the problem (group discussion) is completely controlled by the teacher.

Management here is twofold. Firstly, to conduct a discussion, the teacher creates and maintains a certain level of relationships among students - relationships of goodwill and frankness, i.e., management of the discussion on the part of the teacher is communicative in nature. Secondly, the teacher manages the process of searching for truth. It is generally accepted that educational discussion is permissible “provided that the teacher is able to ensure the correctness of the conclusions.”

Summarizing the above, we can highlight the following specific features optimally organized and conducted educational discussion:

1) a high degree of competence in the problem under consideration of the teacher-organizer and, as a rule, sufficient practical experience in solving similar problems among students;

2) high level predicting solutions to typical problem situations thanks to the serious methodological training of the teacher-organizer, i.e., relatively low level improvisation on the part of the teacher. At the same time, there is a fairly high level of improvisation on the part of students. Hence the need for the teacher to control the discussion process;

3) the goal and result of educational discussion is a high level of students’ assimilation of true knowledge, overcoming misconceptions, and the development of dialectical thinking in them;

4) the source of true knowledge is variable. Depending on the specific problem situation, it is either the teacher-organizer, or the students, or the latter derive true knowledge with the help of the teacher.

In conclusion, it should be noted that this method allows you to make the most of the students’ experience, promoting a better assimilation of the material they are studying. This is due to the fact that in a group discussion it is not the teacher who tells the students what is correct, but the students themselves develop evidence, justification for the principles and approaches proposed by the teacher, using their personal experience as much as possible.

Educational group discussions give the greatest effect when studying and working through complex material and forming the necessary attitudes. This active learning method provides good opportunities for feedback, reinforcement, practice, motivation, and transfer of knowledge and skills from one area to another.

33.Working with a book as a teaching method
Since books appeared in schools, working with them has become one of the most important teaching methods.
The main advantage of this method is the ability for the student to repeatedly process educational information at a pace accessible to him and at a convenient time.
Educational books successfully perform the following functions: teaching, developing, educating, stimulating, control and correction.
When using specially designed, so-called programmed educational books, issues of control, correction, diagnostics of students' knowledge and skills are effectively resolved.
The goals of students’ independent work with the book may be the following:
- familiarization with the structure of the book;
- a quick look at the book;
- reading individual chapters;
- searching for answers to certain questions;
- studying the material in the book and asking questions about it;
- summarizing individual passages of text or the entire book;
- solving examples and problems, performing control tests;
- learning material from memory.
Working with a book is a complex and difficult learning method for students. Many graduates never master it completely: although they can read, they do not understand the full meaning of what they read.
Therefore, this method should be given more attention.
Among the factors that determine the effectiveness of the method of working with a book, the most important are:
- ability to read and understand what is read fluently;
- the ability to highlight the main thing in the material being studied;
- ability to keep records, draw up structural and logical diagrams
(supporting notes);
- ability to select literature on the issue being studied.
The most widespread are two types of work with a book: in a lesson under the guidance of a teacher and at home independently to consolidate and expand the knowledge gained in the lesson.
When preparing students to work with the book, the teacher explains with what previously studied material the new educational material needs to be compared or combined.
If the work is carried out in class, then the entire process of studying the material from the book is divided into separate parts, the implementation of which is monitored.
After reading a passage of text, students, as instructed by the teacher, stop and perform the necessary actions: understand, remember, compare, contrast, etc.
Work on the text of the textbook at home begins with reproducing from memory the knowledge gained in the lesson.
Synthesizing the educational material learned in class with the text of the textbook is the most important condition for rational work with the book.
When reading a book, a memorization mindset should be developed. Therefore, it is necessary to teach students to grasp the order of presentation and, as they read, mentally make a plan for what they read. A written recording of the plan and main provisions of the book in the form of a structural and logical diagram (basic outline) is very helpful.
Programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, are very effective. Working with them, students receive the necessary instructions, perform the prescribed actions, and most importantly, receive immediate confirmation of the correctness of the actions performed.
Modern educational books are increasingly “compressed” in volume, compilers strive to “pack” a large number of educational material into final tables, diagrams, graphs, visual models, classifications, etc. Therefore, teachers should pay more attention to the analysis of information presented in compressed form, and develop in students the ability to “collapse” and “expand” knowledge.
To make it easier to memorize the material, the teacher must familiarize students with the rules for memorizing various information, constantly monitor the development of memory, and help improve it.
Learning to work with a book involves developing self-control skills in students.
It is necessary to ensure that the student judges his knowledge of the material not by how many times he read the text of the textbook, but by the ability to consciously and in detail present the content of what he read. To do this, you should form the habit of devoting more time not to reading the material, but to effectively reproducing it from memory.
The disadvantages of the method of working with a book include significant expenditure of time and energy, so this method is classified as a low-cost teaching method. In addition, it does not take into account the individual characteristics of students. Poorly written books do not provide sufficient material for self-control and management during the learning process. Therefore, teachers need to choose good books and be sure to combine this method with other teaching methods.

34. Demonstration as a teaching method
This method consists of a visual and sensory familiarization of students with phenomena, processes, and objects in their natural form. It is used not only to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but also to become familiar with the appearance of the object. Its internal structure or location in a series of similar objects.
When demonstrating natural objects, they usually start with appearance (size, shape, color, parts and their relationships), and then move on to internal structure or individual properties that are specially highlighted and emphasized (the operation of the device, etc.).
Demonstration of works of art, clothing samples, etc. also begins with holistic perception.
The display is often accompanied by a schematic sketch of the objects considered. Demonstration of experiments is accompanied by drawing on the board or showing diagrams that facilitate understanding of the principles underlying the experiment.
This method is truly effective only when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, carry out the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out - things, phenomena, and not other people’s ideas about them are comprehended.
It is necessary to distinguish demonstration as an active method of cognition from simple demonstration. In the process of “active demonstration”, which acquires a problematic or exploratory character, students’ attention is concentrated on the essential, and not accidentally discovered, properties of objects, phenomena, and processes. As a result, they are realized faster, easier and more fully. Although the word does not play the main role during demonstration, it constantly accompanies observation and serves to analyze its progress and results.
To increase independence, it is very important to involve students in explaining what they see during the demonstration.
The greatest didactic value is the demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions. But often such a demonstration is not possible or difficult. Then they resort to either demonstrating natural objects in an artificial environment (for example, animals in a zoo), or to demonstrating artificially created objects in a natural environment (for example, small copies of mechanisms).
Artificial substitutes for natural objects - three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects. They allow you to get acquainted with the design and principles of operation. Many modern models provide the possibility of direct measurements, as well as determination of technical or technological characteristics. The effectiveness of demonstration is facilitated by the correct choice of objects, the teacher’s ability to direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated, as well as the correct combination of various methods.
The demonstration process should be structured so that:
- all students clearly saw the demonstrated object;
- could perceive it, if possible, with all the senses, and not just with the eyes;
- the most important essential aspects of the object made the greatest impression on students and attracted maximum attention;
- the possibility of independent measurement of the studied qualities of the object was provided.

35.Illustration as a teaching method
Closely related to the method of demonstration is the method of illustration, which, according to tradition in Russian didactics, is considered as independent. Illustration involves showing and perceiving objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions of flat models, etc.
IN Lately the practice of visualization has been enriched with new means.
Multicolor cards with plastic coating, albums, etc. were created.
Methods of demonstration and illustration complement each other and enhance the joint action.
When students need to perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole, a demonstration is used, but when they need to understand the essence of the phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustration
The essence of many phenomena and processes is revealed with the help of flat models - dynamic and static, chain and black and white. At correct use Taking into account the goal and didactic tasks, these models provide great assistance to teachers and students.
They greatly facilitate the process of concept formation.
The effectiveness of an illustration largely depends on the presentation method. When choosing visual aids and the form of illustration, you should carefully consider their didactic purpose, place and role in the cognitive process. The teacher also faces the problem of determining the optimal volume of illustrative material.
Experience shows that a large number of illustrations distract students from clarifying the essence of the phenomena being studied.
Illustrations are prepared in advance, but are shown only in the right place as the training progresses.
In some cases, it is advisable to use handouts (photos, diagrams, tables, etc.).
IN modern pedagogy On-screen technical means are used to ensure high-quality illustrations.

36.Video teaching method
Intensive penetration into work practice educational institutions modern sources of on-screen presentation of information (overhead projectors, projectors, educational television, video players and video recorders, as well as computer media systems) allows us to identify and consider the video method as a separate teaching method.
The video method is used not only to present knowledge, but also to control it, consolidate it, repeat it, generalize it, systematize it, and therefore successfully perform all didactic functions.
The basis of the method is the visual perception of information. It involves both inductive and deductive ways of acquiring knowledge, varying degrees of independence and cognitive activity of students,
allows for various ways to control the cognitive process.
In fact, we are no longer talking about a method, but about a comprehensive didactic technology.
The teaching and educational functions of this method are determined by the high efficiency of the impact of visual images.
Information presented in a visual form is most accessible to perception and is absorbed easier and faster. True, the developmental effect of visual information in the case when students are not offered control exercises and tests on its perception and memorization is small.
The movie screen and television do little to stimulate the development of abstract thinking, creativity and independence. A special organization of training is needed so that the cinema and television screens become a source of problems and an incentive for independent research.
The use of the video method in the educational process provides the opportunity to:
- give students more complete, reliable information about the phenomena and processes being studied;
- increase the role of visibility in the educational process;
- satisfy the requests, desires and interests of students;
- free the teacher from some of the technical work associated with monitoring and correcting knowledge, skills, checking notebooks, etc.;
- establish effective feedback;
- organize complete and systematic control, objective accounting of progress.
With the help of the video method, many didactic and educational problems are effectively solved. It is useful:
1. to present new knowledge, in particular very slow processes that cannot be observed directly;
2. to explain the principles of action in dynamics complex mechanisms and cars;
3. to teach algorithms for performing various types of activities;
4. to organize test trials;
5. to perform training work, exercises, process modeling, and carry out the necessary measurements;
6. to create databases for conducting educational and training research work;
7. for computer recording of each student’s progress, implementation of a differentiated approach to the organization of training;
8. to rationalize the educational process, increase productivity, ensure the optimal volume of transmission and assimilation of information by improving the quality of pedagogical management.
Modern means video information allows you to highlight the most important places, thereby creating favorable conditions for assimilation not only of the video sequence, but also its structure. Animation, used in teaching to visually and figuratively reveal the essence of difficult educational topics, has especially rich possibilities.
The effectiveness of this method depends little on the personal skill of the teacher, but is directly related to the quality of video tutorials and the technical means used.
The video method places great demands on the organization of the educational process, which must be clear, thoughtful, and expedient.
A teacher using the video method is required to have a developed ability to introduce students to the range of problems being studied, guiding their activities, drawing generalizing conclusions, and providing individual assistance in the process of independent work.