Athenian strategist who defended his hometown with the wooden sides of ships

Vertical: 1. The city near which the Greeks first defeated the Persians. 3. A city in Greece, famous, according to Socrates, “for its wisdom and power.” 4. Macedonian king, outstanding commander. 5. Poet, author of comedies (“Birds”, etc.). 6. The heroine of Sophocles' tragedy of the same name. 8 . The main port of the Athenian state. 9. A city in Greece, near which the Greeks were defeated and lost their independence. 11. An Athenian strategist who ensured that a naval battle with the Persians was fought in the narrow Strait of Salamis. 13. The famous sage, sentenced by the Athenian court to death penalty. 14. A city in Greece, near which it was defeated ground army Xerxes. 17. The inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia enslaved by the Spartans. 18. Island (the Persian fleet was defeated in the strait between it and Attica). 21. A metal or bone stick used to press out letters on wax-rubbed boards. 25. A people whose kings were Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. 26. Places in Athens where adult citizens did gymnastics, met with friends, and listened to scientists speak. 28 . Greek word meaning "people". 29. Greek word meaning "city". 33. A hill with steep and steep sides in the center of Athens. 35. Formation of infantry in close, serried ranks, usually in the shape of a rectangle. 37. Greek word meaning "place for spectacle." 38. The name of the Persian king, whose troops were defeated by Alexander the Great. 39. Sculptor creator of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon. 40 . A warship with three rows of oars. 41. Part of the theater, a building adjacent to the orchestra. 46. An island near Alexandria on which a huge lighthouse was erected.

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Task No. 70. Solve the crossword puzzle “From the history of Ancient Rome.”

Horizontal: 1.A city in Africa, near which Hannibal's troops were defeated by the Romans. 5. Greek city destroyed by the Romans to the ground (146 BC). 7 . Legendary founder of Rome. 10 . God of war, father of the founder of Rome. 11. The ceremonial entry into Rome of the victorious commander. 13 . Slaves trained to fight each other for the amusement of the Roman public. 16. The river on the left bank of which the city of Rome was founded. 17 . Carthaginian commander. 18 . Son of the god Mars, killed by his twin brother. 19. Goddess of fire and hearth. 20 . An animal domesticated in India that took part in battles. 22. The clothing of a Roman citizen, an oval-shaped piece of woolen material. 23. Country on the Apennine Peninsula. 26 . Residents of ancient Rome, immigrants from different regions of Italy and their descendants. 29 . Roman commander, winner of Hannibal. 30 . A country in the Eastern Mediterranean whose king, Antiochus, was defeated by the Romans. 31 . A noble Roman who ended his speeches in the Senate with a call for the destruction of Carthage. 32 . An ancient people who lived on the right bank of the Tiber and in a vast area to the west of it. 34 . A city in Italy, near which Hannibal surrounded the Roman army and defeated it. 36 . An official in Rome elected by the plebeians. 37 . What ropes were made from for throwing machines in Carthage, besieged by the Romans. 38 . Roman clothing, woolen shirt with short sleeves. 39. Roman youth, nicknamed Lefty for his feat. 40. The building where gladiatorial games were held.

Vertical: 2. A country on the Balkan Peninsula north of Greece, conquered by the Romans. 3 . Mountains, crossing which cost Hannibal almost half of his army. 4 . Main square of Rome. 5 . A city in Africa, destroyed by the Romans in the same year as Corinth. 6. City founded by Romulus. 7 . The name of the city of Rome in Latin. 8. Descendants of the most ancient inhabitants of Rome. 9 . The king who fought with the Romans, who is credited with the expression: “Another such victory - and we will die! 12 . According to the Romans, it was a “talking instrument.” 13 . Warlike tribes that captured Rome in 390 BC. e. 14 . The last Roman king, deprived of power by the Romans. 15. King of Syria, defeated by the Romans. 19 . An animal that, according to legend, fed twin brothers, sons of the god Mars. 21 . Warriors who guarded the king in Rome, and later the consuls. 24 . The name of a military unit of the Roman army. 25 . Government in Rome, established by citizens in 509 BC. e. 26 . A river in northern Italy, along the banks of which the Gauls lived. 27 . The island is triangular in shape, because of which the war between Rome and Carthage began. 28 . The Latin word by which the tribune of the people canceled the order of the consul or prohibited voting by law. 29 . Gathering of former consuls and others officials, had enormous power. 33 . A Greek colony in southern Italy, whose inhabitants, not wanting to submit to Rome, called on King Pyrrhus for help. 34 . One of two elected rulers of Rome who had equal power. 35. Roman commander, winner of Spartacus.

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Solve the crossword puzzle “Remember the history of Ancient Rome.”

Horizontal: 2.Poet, author of the poem "Aeneid". 4. A scientist who argued that people must persevere in all adversities; committed suicide on the orders of Nero. 6. The largest amphitheater, accommodating about 50 thousand spectators. 7. A temple in Rome, topped with a dome shaped like half a globe. 8. General, famous for the conquest of Gaul; established sole power in Rome. 9 . A poet who called his poems a timeless monument. 12. A title whose bearer had unlimited power and was not obliged to account to anyone for his actions. 14 . The last queen of Egypt. 18. Farmers who took land for cultivation for a fee. 20 . Germanic tribe that captured Rome in 410. 21 . Roman commander, defeated by the Germans, who completely destroyed three legions. 23. The river, crossing which Caesar said: “The die is cast!” 24. The ruler of Rome who achieved the end of civil wars. 25 . Caesar's unfaithful friend, one of his assassins. 26. According to the Romans, “the best of emperors,” who stopped executions based on false denunciations. 29. The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. 30. A country on the Balkan Peninsula, the birthplace of Spartak. 31 . Roman historian who condemned in his books the cruelties of Nero and other emperors. 32. Brothers who came from a noble plebeian family; spoke out in defense of the farmers of Italy.

Vertical: 1. A council that had great influence over the Romans, at a meeting of which Caesar was killed. 2. The mountain on top of which was the first camp of the Spartacists. 3. The word used to describe the rulers of Rome who single-handedly ruled the state after the fall of the republic. 4. The leader of the rebel slaves, a native of Thrace. 5. Main character Virgil's poems. 8. Equestrian competition facility. 9. Roman province conquered by Caesar. 10 . A mixture of pebbles and sand with lime mortar was used in construction. 11 . Roman commander who died in the war with the Parthian kingdom. 13 . Roman baths. 14. The emperor who allowed Christians to build churches and openly pray. 15. Roman commander who was defeated at the Battle of Cape Actium. 16. Commander, Caesar's main opponent in the struggle for power. 17. A Germanic tribe that captured Rome in the mid-5th century and subjected it to terrible devastation. 18. The city where the Spartacus uprising began. 19. The shape of the front gate, erected in honor of the military victory of the Romans. 21. A word that the Greeks and Romans used to call peoples whose language they did not understand. 22. Octavian's honorary nickname given to him by the Senate after the end of the civil wars. 25. The strait on the European shore of which Constantinople was built. 27. Leader of the Goths who captured Rome in 410. 28 . A cape near the western shores of the Balkan Peninsula, near which a naval battle took place between Anthony and Octavian.

2. The word that the Greeks used to call their country 5. One of the most educated women of Hellas, the wife of Pericles. 7. King of Macedonia, father of Alexander. 9. Participants in a theatrical performance united in a group; They depicted either friends of the main character, or townspeople, or warriors, and sometimes animals. 10. Goddess who was considered the patroness of Attica. 12. The city near which Alexander defeated Darius and captured his family. 14. Hill in Athens - a place of public meetings (find its name on the city plan in the textbook). 15. The sculptor who created the discus thrower statue. 16. Passage between the mountains and the sea, where three hundred Spartans accomplished the feat. 18. The ruler of Athens, who prohibited the enslavement of unpaid debtors. 19. One of the two main policies of Hellas. 20. Alexander’s friend who saved his life at the Battle of Granicus. 22. Participant in running, fist fighting, etc. competitions. 23. A Greek colony near the Black Sea coast, visited by Herodotus. 24. People whom the Greeks called “animate property and the most perfect of tools.” 25. The famous leader of the demos, whom the Athenians chose for the post of first strategist for many years in a row. 27. Spartan king, under whose command the Greeks defended Thermopylae from the Persians. 29. A comedy-fairy tale in which the choir and actors depict the construction of a city between heaven and earth. 30. A place in Hellas where pan-Greek games were held every four years. 31. Temple of Athena the Virgin in the city named after her. 32. Goddess of victory, whose temple was erected on the Acropolis. 34. Poet, author of tragedies (“Antigone”, etc.). 36. Athenian strategist who commanded the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon. 42. A Phoenician city that offered fierce resistance to the troops of Alexander the Great. 43. The king who led the Persian invasion of Greece. 44. A bronze or stone object intended for throwing in competitions. 45. An evergreen tree that produces oily fruits. 47. Main square in Athens. 48. Writer, nicknamed “the father of history.” 49. Alexandrian scientist who created a textbook on geometry. 50. One of the main regions of Central Greece. 51. A person who knows how to make speeches. Vertically: 1. The city near which the Greeks first defeated the Persians. 3. A city in Greece, famous, according to Socrates, “for its wisdom and power.” 4. Macedonian king, an outstanding commander. 5. Poet, author of comedies (“Birds”, etc.). 6. The heroine of the tragedy of the same name by Sophocles. 8. The main port of the Athenian state. 9. A city in Greece, near which the Greeks were defeated and lost their independence. 11. Athenian strategist who ensured that a naval battle with the Persians was fought in the narrow Strait of Salamis. 13. The famous sage, sentenced to death by an Athenian court. 14. A city in Greece, near which the land army of Xerxes was defeated. 17. The inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia enslaved by the Spartans. 18. Island (the Persian fleet was defeated in the strait between it and Attica). 21. A metal or bone stick that was used to press out letters on wax-rubbed boards. 25. The people whose kings were Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes. 26. Places in Athens where adult citizens did gymnastics, met with friends, and listened to scientists speak. 28. Greek word translated meaning “people.” 29. Greek word translated meaning “city.” 33. A hill with steep and steep slopes in the center of Athens. 35. Formation of infantry in close, serried ranks, usually in the shape of a rectangle. 37. Greek word meaning "place for spectacles." 38. The name of the Persian king, whose troops were defeated by Alexander the Great. 39. Sculptor, creator of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon. 40. A warship with three rows of oars. 41. Part of the theater, building adjacent to the orchestra. 46. ​​An island near Alexandria, on which a huge lighthouse was erected.

Answer or solution2

Horizontally: 1. Sister-goddesses, patroness of poetry, arts and sciences (muses). 2. The word that the Greeks used to call their country (Hellas). 5. One of the most educated women of Hellas, wife of Pericles (Aspasia). 7. King of Macedonia, father of Alexander (Philip). 9. Participants in a theatrical performance united in a group; They depicted either friends of the main character, or townspeople, or warriors, and sometimes animals (chorus). 10. Goddess who was considered the patroness of Attica (Athena). 12. The city near which Alexander defeated Darius and captured his family (Iss.). 14. Hill in Athens - place of public meetings (find its name on the city plan in the textbook) (Pnyx). 15. The sculptor who created the statue of the discus thrower (Myron). 16. Passage between the mountains and the sea, where three hundred Spartans accomplished the feat (Thermopylae). 18. The ruler of Athens, who prohibited the enslavement of unpaid debtors (Solon). 19. One of the two main policies of Hellas (Sparta). 20. Alexander’s friend who saved his life at the Battle of Granicus (Cleitus). 22. Participant in running, fist fighting, etc. competitions. (athlete). 23. Greek colony near the Black Sea coast, visited by Herodotus (Olbia). 24. People whom the Greeks called “animate property and the most perfect of tools” (slaves). 25. The famous leader of the demos, whom the Athenians elected for the post of first strategist for many years in a row (Pericles). 27. Spartan king, under whose command the Greeks defended Thermopylae from the Persians (Leonidas). 29. A comedy-fairy tale in which the choir and actors depict the construction of a city between heaven and earth (Birds). 30. A place in Hellas where the Pan-Greek Games (Olympia) were held every four years. 31. Temple of Athena the Virgin in the city named after her (Parthenon). 32. Goddess of victory, whose temple was erected on the Acropolis (Nike). 34. Poet, author of tragedies (“Antigone”, etc.) (Sophocles). 36. Athenian strategist who commanded the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon (Miltiades). 42. A Phoenician city that offered fierce resistance to the troops of Alexander the Great (Tire). 43. The king who led the Persian invasion of Greece (Xerxes). 44. A bronze or stone object intended for throwing in competitions (discus). 45. An evergreen tree that produces oily fruits (olive). 47. Main square in Athens (Agora). 48. Writer, nicknamed “the father of history” (Herodotus). 49. Alexandrian scientist who created a textbook on geometry (Euclid). 50. One of the main regions of Central Greece (Attica). 51. A person who knows how to make speeches (orator).
Vertically: 1. The city near which the Greeks first defeated the Persians (Marathon). 3. A city in Greece, famous, according to Socrates, “for its wisdom and power” (Athens). 4. Macedonian king, outstanding commander (Alexander). 5. Poet, author of comedies (“Birds”, etc.) (Aristophanes). 6. The heroine of the tragedy of the same name by Sophocles (Antigone). 8. The main port of the Athenian state (Piraeus). 9. A city in Greece, near which the Greeks were defeated and lost their independence (Chaeronea). 11. Athenian strategist who ensured that a naval battle with the Persians was fought in the narrow Strait of Salamis (Themistocles). 13. The famous sage, sentenced to death by the Athenian court (Socrates). 14. A city in Greece, near which the land army of Xerxes (Platea) was defeated. 17. Residents of Laconia and Messenia (helots) enslaved by the Spartans. 18. Island (the Persian fleet was defeated in the strait between it and Attica) (Salamin). 21. A metal or bone stick, which was used to press out letters on tablets rubbed with wax (stylus). 25. The people whose kings were Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes (Persians). 26. Places in Athens where adult citizens practiced gymnastics, met with friends, and listened to scientists speak (gymnasiums). 28. Greek word translated meaning “city” (polis). 33. A hill with steep and steep slopes in the center of Athens (Acropolis). 35. Formation of infantry in close, serried ranks, usually in the shape of a rectangle (phalanx). 37. Greek word translated meaning “place for spectacle” (theater). 38. The name of the Persian king, whose troops were defeated by Alexander the Great (Darius). 39. Sculptor, creator of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon (Phidias). 40. A warship with three rows of oars (trireme). 41. Part of the theater, a building (skene) adjacent to the orchestra. 46. ​​An island near Alexandria, on which a huge lighthouse (Pharos) was erected.

Horizontally: 1. muses. 2. Hellas. 5. Aspasia. 7. Philip. 9. chorus 10. Athena. 12. Iss. 14. Pnyx. 15. Miron. 16. Thermopylae. 18. Solon. 19.Sparta. 20. Clit. 22. athlete. 23. Olvia. 24. slaves. 25. Pericles. 27. Leonid. 29. Birds. 30. Olympia. 31. Parthenon. 32. Nika. 34. Sophocles. 36. Miltiades. 42.Shooting range 43. Xerxes. 44. disk. 45. olive. 47. Agora. 48. Herodotus. 49. Euclid. 50. Attica. 51. speaker.
Vertical: 1. Marathon. 3.Athens. 4. Alexander. 5. Aristophanes. 6. Antigone. 8. Piraeus. 9. Chaeronea. 11. Themistocles. 13.Socrates. 14.Platea. 17. helots. 18. Salamis. 21. stylus. 25. Persians. 26. gymnasium. 28. demos. 29. policy. 33. Acropolis. 35. phalanx. 37.theater 38. Darius. 39. Phidias. 40. trireme. 41. skena. 46. ​​Pharos.

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The Battle of Salamis took place on September 27 (28), 480 BC. e. during the Greco-Persian Wars. In this naval battle, the Hellenes won a triumphant victory over the powerful fleet of the Persian king Xerxes. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. The Greeks, or, as they called themselves and call themselves, the Hellenes, had to defend their independence from Persia, which by that time had become a world power.

At the head of the resistance were Athens and Sparta - the two most powerful Greek policies, that is, the cities of the state. In 490 BC. e. The Athenians defeated the Achaemenid army at Marathon. This caused legitimate pride and joy among citizens, but many people realized that difficult times lay ahead and there was no way to rest on their laurels. This is what the strategist Themistocles thought. He understood that the Greek cities would never assemble an army that could compete in numbers with the army of the giant Persian power.

This means we need to create a fleet. This is the only chance for salvation. At sea, the Greeks would become strong rivals to the Persians. But the Athenians had neither the desire nor the ability to build ships.

The Persians seemed so far away, and there was not enough money in the treasury. Themistocles, oddly enough, was helped by the conflict with the Greek city of Aegina. Aegina was nearby, and the Athenians agreed that a strong fleet was necessary in this case. The strategist found a source of funds and suggested using the income from silver mines.

According to custom, this money was divided among all citizens, but the military leader was very persuasive. The people's assembly agreed with his arguments, although not without difficulty: some argued that the strategist was turning the Athenians from hoplite warriors into some kind of shipbuilders, others accused him of wastefulness, and still others of extortion. Nevertheless, the deed was done, and by 481 BC. e. In Athens, a large fleet for those times was built, consisting of two hundred ships. Very soon the Athenian citizens felt how right the stubborn strategist Themistocles was.

The Persians invaded Greece, defeated the brave Spartans in the north, at Thermopylae, and found themselves dangerously close to Athens. The Athenians tried to convince their allies to give a decisive battle in Boeotia to save the city of Pallas. However, they didn’t want to hear about it. It was decided to protect at least the Peloponnese. They began to build a wall on the Isthmus of Corinth. For this reason, all the inhabitants of Athens moved to the Peloponnese and the island of Salamis. The troops also retreated there. The days of waiting for the battle passed. At the beginning of September 480 BC. e. Xerxes' army entered depopulated Athens and burned the city. The wish of King Darius I, who dreamed of taking revenge on the Athenians for supporting the rebels of Asia Minor Greeks, seemed to have come true. At this time, the combined Greek fleet had already assembled in the narrow, winding and rocky Strait of Salamis - 200 Athenian ships and 180 allied ships. The combined naval forces were not commanded by Themistocles, but by another strategist, Eurybiades. The naval commander hoped to stop the enemy on the Isthmus of Corinth and proposed sending all ships there to support the ground forces. Themistocles resisted this with all his might.

He argued that a battle in a narrow strait, the channel of which was well known to the Greeks, was the only chance to cope with the fleet of the Achaemenid power, which numbered 1207 ships. On the open sea, Themistocles argued, it was impossible to defeat the Persians, just as on land. And by destroying the naval forces in the strait, the Greeks would deprive Xerxes of communication with Asia Minor. In the heat of an argument, Eurybiades even swung a stick at Themistocles, to which he said: “Beat, but listen.” Another strategist reproached Themistocles: it was inappropriate for a man who had lost his city to persuade others to leave their homes. The Athenian strategist exclaimed that the Athenians left their homeland so as not to become slaves for the sake of soulless things.

And the greatest of the cities of Hellas are these 200 Athenian ships that can save everyone. If they were betrayed again, the Athenians would go to southern Italy and build themselves a new city there. Themistocles convinced the strategists. The military leaders agreed with his plan. But in the morning they saw a huge enemy fleet. These were not all the ships, but only part of them, but the allies were amazed by such a sight. They just got scared and decided to sail to the Peloponnese at night. Themistocles learned of their intention and was forced to provoke the start of the fight. He sent their compatriot, a long-time captive of the Greeks, to the Persians.

This man's name was Sikinnus, and he was the faithful slave of the strategist. Sikinnos appeared before Xerxes and declared that Themistocles had sent him, that the Greeks wanted to flee at night, and if the king prevented them, the Athenian strategist would go over to the side of the Persians in the midst of the battle. The king believed this half-truth and ordered the ships to put to sea and block the exit from the Strait of Salamis. On the morning of September 27 or 28, 480 BC. e. The Hellenes saw the enemy fleet, built in battle order. In the distance, on a hill on a golden throne, under a gilded canopy, sat Xerxes.

Around the ruler of the Achaemenid power there were confidants and many scribes who were supposed to describe great victory Persians Themistocles launched an attack the moment a fresh wind blew from the sea. It did not interfere with the Greek ships, which were flat and had low sides. But the heavy Persian ships with high sterns suffered from strong rolling. The battle has begun. Xerxes and his entourage realized that they were acting at the direction and desire of Themistocles. When the commander of the Persian fleet, Ariamenes, brother of Xerxes, noticed the Greek strategist, he ordered arrows and spears to be thrown at him.

Then the Greek ship, sailing next to Themistocles' trireme, hit Ariamenes' trireme with its pointed nose. The enemy ships grappled. Ariamen, at the head of his warriors, tried to capture the Athenian ship, but the Hellenes threw it into the sea and boarded it themselves. A brutal hand-to-hand battle began. The Greek hoplites fought bravely, and Ariamenes was soon killed. The death of the commander upset the ranks of the Persians and deprived them of courage. The Greeks were inspired and fought with unprecedented courage, because only victory could save them.

Small and fast Greek triremes easily maneuvered in the familiar waters of the strait among the large, heavy and clumsy Persian ships. They blocked the fairway and began to collide with each other. Accompanied by the crackle of breaking oars and the whistle of arrows, the Greeks boarded, rammed the sides of ships, and sank enemy ships. In a few hours, the Persians lost two hundred ships, and the Greeks forty.

The remnants of the Persian fleet miraculously escaped into the open sea. They returned to Asia Minor. The Battle of Salamis was a turning point in the war. Themistocles, with the help of military stratagem, forced King Xerxes to leave Europe, telling him that the Greeks were going to destroy the bridge across the Hellespont, and that the king should hurry up. Having lost his advantage at sea, Achaemenides went home to Asia, however, leaving the commander Mardonius in Greece. So the Greeks deprived the Persians of their advantage at sea.

Spektor, A. A. The greatest battles of all times and peoples /A. A. Spector. - Moscow ACT, 2014. - 240 pp.: ill.

Who watched this movie? Probably not many. And those (like me) probably watched it only because of the first part, in the hope of at least some semblance. But that's not what we're talking about. It turns out I was completely unaware of the historical background of this film. Some percentage of it is still based on real historical events. And here they are.

The Battle of Salamis (480 BC) was a naval battle that took place between the Persian and Greek armies during the famous Greco-Persian War. The battle took place near the island of Salamis, which is located near Athens. According to some accounts, the Greek fleet consisted of 311 or 380 ships, which were able to easily defeat the much larger Persian fleet of 1,000 ships in the narrow strait. It was the Battle of Salamis that became a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian war.

Let's remember these historical events more details...

The battle was preceded by a number of events that could significantly influence the further course of the war. The Persian army occupied and destroyed Athens. Residents of the city were previously evacuated to the nearby island of Salamis. The entire allied Greek fleet was concentrated in the narrow straits between the island and the mainland. There are different opinions regarding the size of both fleets; the only constant is the point of view that the Persians had numerical superiority. The most often cited figures are: approximately 310 Greek rowing triremes (according to Aeschylus - 311 ships, Herodotus - about 380), against 1200 Persian ones. However, the famous Soviet historian, Professor S. Lurie, believes that no more than 500 Persian ships actually took part in the battle. But one point should be noted: the Persian ships were for the most part heavier and larger than the Greek ones. Naturally, there was no talk of any naval artillery in that era; the main means of fighting the enemy at sea were ramming and boarding (if the latter was successful, the enemy ship could be set on fire and sunk). So the size of the ship and the number of warriors that could fit on it were of significant importance.

Serious disagreements arose among the Hellenes. Most military leaders proposed leaving Salamis and directing all forces to defend the Isthmus of Corinth. The Athenian strategist Themistocles pointed out that only in narrow straits could the Greeks defeat the Persian fleet, which was superior in both the number of ships and the quality of training of sailors. Seeing the impossibility of influencing the decisions of other military leaders, he decided on a trick. Having sent his trusted messenger to Xerxes, he ordered to tell him that the Greeks were going to flee, and if the king wanted to destroy the Greek fleet, then he should immediately begin battle.

For the Greeks, the only possibility of a decisive naval victory was a battle in a narrow space, where the enemy’s numerical superiority was leveled out. By entering the straits between the mainland and Salamis, the Persians deprived themselves of their advantages. For them, the start of the Battle of Salamis was a decisive strategic mistake, which determined the outcome of the battle and the further course of the war.

The main source that has survived to this day describing the naval battle at Salamis is the VIII book of Herodotus’s “History”. Regardless of Herodotus, the event was described by Ctesias of Cnidus, who lived at the court of the Persian king Artaxerxes II, in his work “Persian History”. The tragedy “The Persians” by the ancient Greek playwright and battle participant Aeschylus is also of historical interest. In it, a direct witness to the Battle of Salamis described his feelings about the death of the Persian fleet.

The Battle of Salamis and other events of the Greco-Persian wars were given considerable attention by the ancient historians Diodorus, Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, who lived much later.

The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria assisted the sister city-states of Ionia in their unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of the Persian king Darius in 499-494 BC. e. The Persian Empire was quite young at that time. It was often shaken by uprisings of conquered peoples. The rebels, together with the Athenians, managed to capture and burn an important city of the empire and the capital of the satrapy of Sardis. Darius wanted to take revenge on the Greeks who took part in the uprising, who were beyond his control.

Darius also saw an opportunity to conquer the scattered ancient Greek cities. In 492 BC. e. During the military expedition of the Persian commander Mardonius, Thrace was conquered, Macedonia recognized the supreme power of the Persian king. Thus, the Persians provided their ground forces with passage to the territory Ancient Greece. In 491 BC. e. Darius sent envoys to all independent Greek cities demanding "land and water", which corresponded to submission and recognition of the Persian authority. Realizing the strength and military might of the Achaemenid state, all the cities of ancient Hellas, except Sparta and Athens, accepted humiliating demands. In Athens, the ambassadors were tried and executed. In Sparta they were thrown into a well, offering to take earth and water from there.

In 490 BC. e. The Persian fleet under the command of Datis and Artaphernes was sent to conquer Athens. On the way to Athens, Eretria was conquered and destroyed. The army landed in Attica, but was defeated by the Athenians and Plataeans at the Battle of Marathon. After this unsuccessful expedition, Darius began to gather a huge army to conquer all of Greece. His plans were thwarted by an uprising in Egypt in 486 BC. e., and soon Darius died. The throne was taken by his son Xerxes. Having suppressed the Egyptian uprising, Xerxes continued preparations for the campaign against Greece.

Themistocles came to power in Athens. The period between the Marathon battle and the invasion of Xerxes is called by the antiquarian Surikov “the era of Themistocles.” While the Persians were gathering an army to conquer Hellas, the Athenian politician contributed to the creation of a powerful fleet. The Athenians had a custom of dividing among themselves the proceeds from the silver mines in Laurion. The owner of these mines was the state. After the fall of the tyrants, state property began to be considered the property of all citizens. If, after covering all state needs, significant sums remained in the coffers, then this surplus was divided among the Athenians. Themistocles proposed using the funds received for the construction of ships. The proposal was received very ambiguously. By accepting it, every Athenian was deprived of a small but reliable monetary benefit provided by the state. Preparing ships for the war with the Persians, Themistocles understood that the Athenians would not agree with him, since they did not consider the barbarians defeated at Marathon to be a serious threat. Therefore, he convinced his fellow citizens that new ships and a powerful fleet were necessary for the war with Aegina, an island that was waging a continuous war with Athens. It was this policy that ultimately led to the crushing defeat of Xerxes' army.

In 481 BC. e. Xerxes sent envoys to most of the Greek city-states demanding "land and water", except Athens and Sparta. At the end of autumn 481 BC. e. A pan-Greek meeting took place in Corinth. In the face of a common danger, an alliance was concluded and internecine wars were stopped. Embassies were sent to the Greek colonies asking for help. Technically, it was difficult to implement the decisions of the Pan-Greek Congress due to the fragmentation of the ancient Greeks, the hostility between them and internecine wars.

In 480 BC. e. Xerxes' army began transporting from Asia to Europe. In addition to the ground army, Xerxes had a powerful fleet, equipped with the coastal and island peoples that were part of his state.

All spring and summer 480 BC. e. The campaign of the Persian army continued along the coast of the Aegean Sea. An attempt by a Greek detachment led by the Spartan king Leonidas to block the Persian army’s path to the Thermopylae Gorge ended in failure. The Persians broke into central Greece. The Greek fleet, which met the Persian ships at Cape Artemisia, was forced to retreat to the south and stood off the western coast of Attica.

The position of the Greek fleet at Salamis, according to all the rules of naval art, seemed from the outside to be as unfavorable as possible. Judge for yourself: the fleet is stationed in a narrow space, both exits from it are easily controlled by the enemy, there is nowhere to deploy triremes for battle, and there is nowhere to retreat in case of attack. But Themistocles deliberately took a risk - let this “disadvantageous” position serve as bait for the enemy! And the trick was that the Greeks took into account the conditions of the area. They knew perfectly well all the currents, reefs and shoals in the bays and straits of Salamis. The Persian ships were controlled mainly by Phoenicians - excellent sailors, but it was off the coast of a little-known island that all their thousand-year experience turned out to be useless!

But “positional cunning” was only half the battle for Themistocles. The problem was that the Persians did not really need a fight in such a situation. Some naval commanders of Xerxes (for example, the ruler of the city of Halicarnassus, Artemisia, who commanded a detachment of five ships) reasoned quite sensibly: let the Greeks sit in a trap, and when they get tired, they get out and attack themselves, and that’s where we’ll turn around! These arguments are mentioned in the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. King Xerxes, despite the obvious superiority of his fleet, also hesitated.

Themistocles, as an experienced military leader, probably guessed what his opponents were thinking about. In addition, there was also no unity among the Greeks regarding the position at Salamis. Eurybiades, who commanded the ships from Sparta and formally stood “above” Themistocles on the ladder of military leaders (the Athenian, however, had his own compelling argument in the form of 200 triremes - that is, the majority of the fleet), persistently proposed to relocate closer to the Peloponnese, to the Isthmus of Corinth, and even ordered to prepare for a breakthrough. For Themistocles, who not without reason believed that the Greeks were doomed to defeat on the high seas, there was only one way out: to immediately lure the Persians into battle! And the Athenian used a trick unprecedented up to that time, which can be called “false betrayal.”

The teacher of his children, a slave named Sicinnus (curiously, of Persian origin) went to Xerxes and promised that Themistocles’s detachment would go over to the Persian side in battle. “As proof of his devotion, Themistocles informs the king about the plans of the Greeks. The king should lock both exits from the Strait of Salamis and prevent the Greeks from leaving,” the slave said. Xerxes believed these words. And the Persian ships climbed into Themistocles’ trap, blocking the exits from the strait, including the narrowest and most inconvenient for large ships - at Cape Kamatero. It was there that the main events unfolded.

The battle itself took place in accordance with Themistocles' plans. Some Persian ships ran aground safely, where they were captured by the Greeks. Several ships hit reefs and sank without any enemy intervention at all. And most of the advanced Persian ships fell victim to another trick of Themistocles: the Athenian naval commander pretended that his ships in the center of the position were retreating, and “pulled” the Persians with him into a place in the strait where they physically had nowhere to even turn around. When the Hellenes stopped and launched a furious counterattack, the Persians were forced to retreat in disarray, colliding with other ships of their own fleet and sinking them. By evening, the Persian flotilla, reduced by at least half, hastily left Salamis, which was fatal for it. The Greeks regained command of the sea, and a year later, at the Battle of Plataea, they defeated the foot army of Xerxes, putting an end to plans for the conquest of Greece.

Well, as for the film, of course there is little historical truth. For example, Paul Cartledge, a professor of classical studies at the University of Cambridge, noted that in reality neither Xerxes nor Darius were present at the Battle of Marathon, and the latter could not have been killed in Greece by Themistocles, as shown in the film. Contrary to the film, Artemisia actually opposed the naval battle with the Greeks in the strait and did not die in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Spartan fleet added only 16 warships to the total Greek fleet of 400 ships, and not a huge armada at all

Athenian strategist Themistocles

The new ruler of Persia, Xerxes, inherited a huge state, with its large army, an unsuppressed anti-Persian uprising in Egypt, the same popular uprisings were about to break out in Babylonia, and the actual state of war with Greece. Xerxes “pacified” the Egyptians with great cruelty, took Babylon by storm, after which he ordered the demolition of its fortress walls, and began to prepare for big war with Hellas.

King Xerxes understood perfectly well that this war would not be easy for him. He intended to gather an army of up to 200 thousand people in Sardis. Only a tenth of it could have been Persian. An agreement was concluded with Carthage, according to which the Carthaginians were to attack the Greek colonies on the island of Sicily. In this case, Hellas could not receive any help, especially military, from the Sicilian Greeks.

Athens was well aware that the Battle of Marathon did not shake the military power of Persia and that it would not give up the conquest of Greece. The protracted naval war between Athens and its rival Aegina led to the fact that some of the citizens of the city-state, led by the strategist Themistocles, began to advocate for a comprehensive increase in the navy. The other part, led by the aristocrat Aristad, believed that Athens was vulnerable from land and no fleet, even the strongest in the world, could save the city.

The question of whether to defend against Persia with an armed hand or not was decided by a popular assembly of free Athenian citizens. Aristads was expelled from the city, and the general Themistocles in 483 BC. e. began building warships. All the silver mined over several years at the Lavria mines, famous in Ancient Greece, was spent on their construction.

In two years, the Athenian navy increased by 100 three-decker ships - triremes, and in total there were 300. Crews were trained for them, whose seamanship was high. At the same time, the harbor of the Athenian port-suburb of Piraeus was being strengthened. But by the beginning of the war with Persia, these works did not have time to be completed.

In 481 BC. e., as mentioned above, a military-defensive alliance of Greek states was created, led by Sparta and Athens. In Athens, a debate broke out in the government body, the Council of Five Hundred, about the strategic plan for the upcoming war. Even the residents of Athens were offered to leave the city and take refuge on the Peloponnese peninsula beyond the Corinthian isthmus. Many believed that its seven kilometers of land could be protected from penetration by an enemy army.

However, Themistocles was able to convince his opponents that the Peloponnese was vulnerable to the naval forces of Persia. A more strategist was able to establish in the minds of Athenian citizens the idea that they could only defend their hometown from the Persian hordes with the sides of wooden ships.

The Persian army led by Xerxes set out on a campaign in the spring of 480. The king gathered troops from all the satrapies of his power - from the banks of the Indus to Egypt. “The Father of History” Herodotus gives truly fantastic figures: 1,700,000 foot soldiers, 80 thousand horsemen and 20 thousand on camels. A total of 100 thousand mounted warriors.

However, researchers estimate the number of Xerxes’ troops who set out on a campaign against the Balkan part of Hellas at 100–150 thousand people (together with the fleet) and even less. For that time it was huge military force. All these troops long time concentrated in camps around the city of Sardis.

King Xerxes also took care of collecting ships from all over the Mediterranean coast under his control. There were up to 500–600 of them. It is likely that some of these ships were built specifically for a naval invasion of mainland Greece.

The Persian army moved on a slow march towards the Hellespont (Dardanelles). A large floating bridge was set up there, and the troops crossed to the European shore. The multi-tribal army of Persia entered Northern Greece through Southern Thrace and Macedonia.

The Greeks left the northern part of Hellas without a fight. They began to defend the mountain pass at Thermopylae.

At this time, the Athenian fleet (together with its allies), consisting of 300–400 triremes, occupied a position at Cape Artemisia on the northern tip of the island of Euboea. The Greeks won the naval battle here against the enemy, but after the Persians captured the Thermopylae Passage, the Greek fleet retreated south to the island of Salamis.

In August - September 480 BC. e. The Persian army launched an attack on Athens from Thermopylae. A huge number of the population of Attica took refuge behind the fortifications on the Isthmus of Corinth. The strategist Themistocles, remaining at the head of the Athenian fleet, ensured that the townspeople were transported to the nearby island of Salamis.

The Persian army advanced south slowly, plundering and plundering the villages and cities of Central Hellas, many of which were abandoned by their inhabitants. During this time, Xerxes strengthened his troops with warriors from Thebes and a number of other Greek city-states, which recognized his power. Soon the Persians found themselves on the streets and squares of Athens. But the big city turned out to be completely deserted.

The Persian fleet, approximately 700–800 warships, approached Athens. Part of it (the Egyptian squadron) blocked the western passage from the bay, taking a position south of the island of Salamis. Most of the fleet of King Xerxes, numbering about 500 ships, lined up in a battle line in front of the eastern passage.

The united Greek fleet of 380 ships - a trireme - stood in the bay between the island of Salamis and the coast of Attica. It was commanded by the Spartan naval commander Entribad, who acted according to the plan of the Athenian strategist Themistocles. Themistocles voluntarily gave the Spartan command of the fleet of Athens.

Some of the Greek triremes stood up to defend the western passage. Most of it blocked the narrowest place between the island and the shore. Themistocles foresaw that it was here that the main events of the battle at sea would take place.

In order to lure the enemy into the narrow strait between the mainland and the island of Salamis, the strategist Themistocles resorted to a military trick. He wrote a letter to the Persian king in which he claimed that the Greek fleet was ready to capitulate to him. Xerxes, for his part, knew for certain that the Greek camp was torn apart by the most acute disagreements, and there was no unity in it.

Before dawn on September 23 (or 28), 480 BC. e. The Persians landed on the island of Psitalley, located at the entrance to the strait. On the shore, on the top of a hill overlooking the strait, King Xerxes sat on a marching throne, surrounded by a large retinue. He wished to personally observe the progress of the upcoming naval battle, which was to glorify his name for centuries.

The Persian fleet, in the closest formation, moved to attack through the eastern passage. But it gradually narrowed, and the ships inevitably crowded together, losing their maneuverability and interfering with each other in movement.

The Greeks, seeing the double superiority of the enemy fleet, hesitated for some time in making a decision on a naval battle. And then a trireme under the command of the fearless sailor Aminia burst forward from their ranks and was the first to attack the enemy. Other Athenian and Aeginian ships rushed into battle after her. Thus began the famous naval battle of Salamis in the history of the Ancient World.

Confusion began in the strait and on its closest approaches. The ships could not maneuver in the terrible cramped conditions and when they collided with each other, hundreds of oars were broken. The numerical superiority of the Persian fleet was reduced to nothing. It gradually became clear that the advantage was on the side of the heavier, more thoroughly built Greek triremes, which carried almost the entire Athenian army on their sides - approximately 6 thousand heavily armed hoplites. In addition, the Athenians knew very well the local fairway, which was replete with pitfalls, which the Phoenician sailors did not know.

The opponents sought to board each other. But here complete superiority was on the side of the Greek hoplites, who were also eager to defeat the enemy. King Xerxes watched in horror as his huge navy, assembled with great difficulty, was defeated by the Greeks.

In Aeschylus’s famous historical drama “The Persians,” a sketch of a naval battle off the island of Salamis has come down to us:

“At first the Persian army stood firm, but when the ships crowded together in the strait, they could not help each other and struck their own with their copper noses - they all then died, and the Hellenes skillfully struck them all around...

And the ships sank. And under the wreckage of the broken ships, under the blood of the dead, the surface of the sea disappeared. The rocks and shores were covered with the corpses of the dead, and the barbarian army, in disorganized flight, was in a hurry to sail away.”

The naval battle of Salamis lasted twelve hours. Half of the Persian fleet (or even more) was sunk or captured (about 200 ships). The victorious Greeks lost only 40 triremes. The surviving Persian ships mostly fled to Phaleron Bay, to Piraeus. Xerxes' brother Ariomenes, who commanded the left wing of the royal fleet, died in the battle.

Having suffered a complete defeat in the naval battle of Salamis, King Xerxes ordered the remnants of his fleet to go north to the Hellespont to protect the floating bridge built across the strait. He himself, with about half of his army, moved back to Asia Minor.

Xerxes left the other half of the army under the command of the commander Mardonius in Northern Greece, in his allied Thessaly. He was supposed to spend the winter there and in the spring of 479 BC. e. resume the war. The Persians abandoned the city of Athens and Attica, where the inhabitants returned.

The Salamis naval victory, whose hero was the strategist Themistocles, led to the unity of the Greek city-states. Now the combined forces of the Hellenes themselves could launch a counter-offensive against the Persian army, deprived of effective support from the sea.

In 478 BC. e. Athens created the Delian Maritime Union, which was named after the island of Delos - the gathering place of the allied fleet and the storage of the allied treasury. Sparta became the leader of the Delians.

Themistocles did not have to act as heroes for long in his hometown: the fate of such people is often changeable. Soon after the creation of the Delian Naval League, serious disagreements arose between Sparta and Athens: the former avoided a major battle with the army of the commander Mardonius, insisting on the Greek fleet marching to the Hellespont. In Sparta they believed that the threat to the strait would force Mardonius to leave Thessaly for Asia Minor.

The strategist Themistocles, who insisted on “catching Asia in Europe,” turned out to be a supporter of the Spartans in their plans for further warfare. But at public meetings in Athens his opponents won, demanding the expulsion of the Persians from Greece itself. And Themistocles, according to established tradition, in 471 BC. e. was expelled from the city.

He had to flee to the new Persian king Artaxerxes I, who entrusted the famous Hellenic commander with the administration of a number of cities in Asia Minor. Themistocles committed suicide (after 460 BC), unwilling to carry out the order of the ruler of Persia to act against his compatriots. He was buried in Magnesia, where a magnificent tomb was erected for him.