Introduction. structure, subject and objectives of the course “Modern Russian language and speech culture. Formation of Russian vocabulary The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems. Lexical composition of the Russian language from the point of view of origin. Modern spellings

1. Territorial dialects are linguistic means that are limited in their use to a certain territory, i.e. used by residents of a particular area. In the Russian language there are northern, southern and central Russian dialects. Dialectisms have their own phonetic features: scream, nyasa, myashok - these are the so-called okonye, ​​yakane, tsokonye. Dialects exhibit features of declension and the formation of parts of speech, i.e. grammatical peculiarities: no, otsedova, clothes, let them go. Lexical dialectisms include: dyuzhe, basko, vecherya (dinner), towel (towel). The presence of dialectisms in a language is evidence of the historical development of the language. Their use in speech is associated with the locality and environment where a person was born, raised and raised.

2. Professionalisms are linguistic means used in the speech of people united by profession or field of activity. Professionalisms should not be confused with terms that are standardized in literature. So the words advocacy, legal adviser are legal terms. Professionalisms usually function as colloquial variants, emotionally charged equivalents of terms. For example, law enforcement officers use such professionalisms as visyak (unpromising criminal case), ksiva, monkey house, chistukha (frank confession), touring (non-local troublemakers), rogue (any troublemaker).

3. Jargon, jargon is vocabulary used by people of a certain social group, their artificial language. Jargonisms are close to professionalisms, but unlike them, jargonisms do not depend on a person’s membership in one or another professional group. Jargon can be playfully ironic or grossly vulgar. So there is youth jargon, which is called slang. Slang can be divided into social-age (the language of schoolchildren and students), and corporate (group) - the language of informal youth groups. Slang reflects a rudely familiar, sometimes ironic attitude towards the subject of speech: ancestors, dude, dumb, mow, teapot. The use of special words is due to the desire of young people to stand out, assert themselves, and show their independence. Youth jargon is changing very quickly. The language of informal youth groups (hippies, punks, rockers) is mostly closed, aggressive, and serves as a means of distinguishing between “us” and “stranger.” The language of informals is full of anglicisms, the name of some phenomena (relations with the police, the name of drugs) is argotic in origin: dope (weed), marafet (drugs), blizzard (meaningless conversation), cart (complaint), pharaoh (policeman).

4. Argo, argotism is an artificial, secret language that is mainly used by declassed elements (thieves, criminals, drug addicts). Argo serves as a means of communication for a limited social group and consists of arbitrarily selected modified elements of one or more natural languages. Otherwise, it is called feny, blat, emphasizing the sphere of its use - the criminal world. Argo is used to hide the subject of communication, and as a means of isolating a social group from the rest of society. The dictionary of Russian argot includes both words and phraseological units of the original Russian language (“khaza” is found in the languages ​​of the Oryol elders; “otnachit” - to give, to attribute - in the language of the Glinotops of the Kaluga province), and foreign words: Turkisms (“bullshit, kar- khan" - drug, "saman" - money); words of gypsy origin (tyrit, havat); Semitisms (shmon, gamura - undiluted alcohol); Ukrainian words (gaman - wallet), territorial dialects and borrowings from European languages ​​(botat - Novgorod dialect, vantage - indulgence, dude - French words; flysh - meat, wasser - carefully - German words; guilders - money - Dutch language). Personal names in a common sense are actively used in the argot: Zakhar - focus, Ivan Ivanovich - prosecutor, Lekha - victim who came from the countryside, Lyuda (Lyudka) - crowd, passers-by. The phraseology of the argot is also peculiar: pour out kvass - cause injury, share with God - rob the church, hemp tie - noose, etc. Argot is expressive and reflects concepts necessary for communication in the criminal world. Initially, argotisms performed two functions: communicative (the language of initiates) and indicative (a signal of belonging to the criminal world). Currently the situation has changed. Many of these words replenish the colloquial style (for example, the language of teenagers), become commonly used and understandable to most native speakers: show off, darken, solder, slow down, roof, bucks, soak, throw. Even the media easily use argotisms: scumbags, get high, weak, scoundrel, little fellow, otmazatsya, sucker, etc. Unfortunately, in the modern Russian spoken language two uncontrollable trends dominate: youth slang filled with Americanisms, corrupted jargon and curses. It's interesting that some words that we now consider swear words were once neutral words. So idiot in the language of the Byzantine Christian clergy meant “not a church person, a private person”; A recruit who was unfit for military service used to be called a scoundrel. Linguists, concerned about the state of the Russian language, draw attention to the general tendency to use unstandardized vocabulary in everyday life. For lawyers and law enforcement officers working with different social groups, there are special dictionaries and reference books of argot and youth slang, for example, “Modern Russian jargon of the criminal world” by O.P. Dubyagina and G.F. Smirnova. – M.: Jurisprudence, 2001.

Vocabulary has been the subject of study for many generations of Russian scholars, therefore the study of the lexical composition of the modern Russian language is still a relevant topic in our time, since the number of lexical units tends to constantly increase,distinguished by the presence of both a number of common and a whole group of unique features in comparison with other Slavic and other Indo-European languages.

The goal of the project: to analyze and identify the most common words in the speech of students of the Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution "Averinskaya Secondary School" in terms of their use of commonly used and restricted vocabulary.

Project objectives:

Determine the place of non-common vocabulary - dialectisms and professionalisms - in students’ speech;

Conduct a sociological study (questionnaire) among middle and high school students in order to determine: the range of the most common slang words, the frequency of use of jargon, the use of professionalisms, neologisms and dialectisms in speech.

Analyze the survey results and place conclusions in diagrams;

Systematize the material;

Draw conclusions on the research topic;

Make a computer presentation.

Hypothesis: in the speech of students, vocabulary that is limited in use predominates; professionalism and dialectisms are practically absent.

Methods and techniques of work: reading and analysis of scientific literature, questionnaires, analysis of questionnaires, collection of frequently used profanity.

This work reveals the features of the lexical composition of the modern Russian language and focuses on the predominance of slang vocabulary in the speech of modern youth.

Language is made up of words, and words are

speech sounds as signs for our thinking

and to express our thoughts and feelings.

F.F. Fortunatov

The origin of the vocabulary of modern Russian language

The Russian lexical system in its modern form did not appear immediately. The process of vocabulary formation is long and complex, closely connected with the history of the development of the Russian people. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has gone through a long development process: it consists not only of native Russian words, but also words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others - relatively recently.

The Russian vocabulary was expanded in two directions:

1. New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed:head, throat, heart, palm, kind, young, dog, squirrel, ladle, ruble, throw, very, currant, necessary.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples: sandwich (German), pate (German), pavilion (French), pasta (Italian), soprano (Italian). The composition of Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table:

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers that differ in the time of their formation.
The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living over a vast territory. So, according to the research of some linguists, it extended from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was a Balkan-Danube, or southern Russian, localization. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit). Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of economic management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European proto-language-base:oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of words Pan-Slavic , inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which served as the source for all Slavic languages. This foundation language existed in prehistoric times on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. AD The common Slavic language collapsed, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

Among the common Slavic words there are words of different parts of speech: concrete nouns:head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, net, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter; abstract nouns (there are fewer of them):faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought; Verbs: see, hear, grow, lieand etc.; adjectives:kind, young, old, wise, cunningand etc.; numerals: one two Three and etc.; pronouns: me, you, we, you and etc.; pronominal adverbs: where, how and etc.; auxiliary parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but etc.

Common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this is the core of the Russian dictionary; it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The third layer of native Russian words consists ofEast Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages ​​(Slavic languages, which had their source in the ancient Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language, according to sound, grammatical and lexical features, separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern).

The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. AD on the territory of Eastern Europe. The Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities go back to the tribal unions that lived here. Therefore, the words remaining in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs. The East Slavic vocabulary includes: names of animals and birds:dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinchand etc.; names of tools: axe, blade and etc.; names of household items:boot, ladle, casket, rubleand etc.; names of people by profession:carpenter, cook, shoemaker, millerand etc.; names of settlements:village, settlementand others, as well as other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of native Russian words isactual Russian vocabulary, formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. The language of this period already has its own words that belong to the Russian vocabulary itself. Actually Russian words are highlighted, as a rule,derivative base : bricklayer, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention.As part of the Russian vocabulary itself, there are words with foreign roots that have gone through the path of Russian word formation and are “overgrown” with Russian suffixes and prefixes:partisanship, non-partisanship, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex base:radio center, locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished the language in the 20th century:Moscow Art Theater, timber industry enterprise, wall newspaperand etc.
The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied byOld Church Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms(Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Rus' since the spread of Christianity (988). Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experienced a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and itself, in turn, left its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.
The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful; it enriched the Russian language, making it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Church Slavonicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet:gold, night, fisherman, rook; finger, mouth, cheeks, percy(cf. Russians: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

A significant role in the XVII-XVIII centuries. (in connection with the reforms of Peter I) words from Germanic languages ​​(German, English, Dutch), as well as from Romance languages ​​(for example, French, Italian, Spanish) were played. German includes a number of words from trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science, etc.: bill, stamp; corporal, camp, headquarters; tie, boots, workbench, chisel, jointer; spinach; easel, bandmaster, landscape, resort. Some nautical terms are Dutch: iceboat, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, roadstead, flag, fleet, etc.

From English to the 19th century. also included some nautical terms: midshipman, bot, brig, but much more words related to the development of social life, technology, sports, etc. entered the 20th century, for example: boycott, leader, rally; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; steak, cake, pudding, etc. English words (often in the American version) became especially widespread in the 90s of the 20th century. in connection with economic, social and political transformations in Russian society. Borrowings from the end of the 20th century. touched on different spheres of life: technical (computer, display, file, byte), sports (bobsleigh, overtime, fighter), financial and commercial (barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing), art (remake, talk show, underground, thriller), socio-political (briefing, rating, impeachment, lobby), etc.

French include individual borrowings from the 18th-19th centuries, such as everyday words: bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights; broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet, as well as words from military vocabulary, art, etc.: ámaêá, artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade; actor, poster, play, director, etc.

Among other Western European borrowings, musical terminology of Italian origin stands out: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, slapstick, sonata, carnival, cavatina; Some everyday words also included: vermicelli, pasta (came through French), gondola, etc. A small number of words came from Spanish: serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, then: caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato, etc.

There are a few borrowings from the Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farmstead.

Borrowed vocabulary of limited use occupies a special place. It consists of words that are heterogeneous in terms of their degree of mastery in the Russian language and in stylistic coloring, which also makes it possible to identify several groups of borrowed vocabulary of limited use.

Book words that are not widely used (immoral, apologist, accentuate, shock). These words, as a rule, have Russian or Old Slavonic synonyms: immoral - immoral, vicious, spoiled, dissolute; apologist - defender, intercessor, supporter; emphasize - highlight; shock - shock, stun, stun, stun. To these examples we can add many “fresh” borrowings: show - performance, performance, spectacle; stagnation - stagnation; corruption - corruption of officials, bribery, bribery; business - entrepreneurship; privatization - denationalization; conversion -- transformation; presentation - presentation of something new (book, film); inauguration is the ceremonial procedure for taking office as the head of state. A significant part of the borrowed book vocabulary consists of terms. Many of them can be conditionally attributed to a specific foreign language source. For example, the terms cosmos, automaton go back to the Greek language, and aggregate, negative to the Latin language. Terms of foreign language origin for the most part do not have Russian synonyms, which makes them indispensable in the scientific style (jargon, dialect, phoneme, morpheme, metric, rhyme). However, there are also many foreign language terms that have Russian or Old Slavonic synonyms: import - import, evolution - development, aggressive - aggressive. Russian synonyms usually have a weakened connotation of scientificity and formality, which is why in book styles foreign language terms are often preferred.

Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amourous - amorous, bon vivant - a frivolous person, rendezvous - a date, sentimentality - sensitivity). The words of this group have become significantly archaic; they always have Russian synonyms, which are most often used in speech.

Exoticisms are borrowed words that characterize specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. Thus, when depicting the life and way of life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, horseman, arba are used; when describing the events in Afghanistan, exoticisms are dushmans, Taliban, the Taliban movement, etc.; Italian flavor is given to speech by the words gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo. A distinctive feature of exoticisms is that they do not have Russian synonyms, so turning to them when describing the life of other peoples is dictated by necessity. Against the background of other foreign language vocabulary, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered in the Russian language.

Foreign language inclusions in Russian vocabulary (okay, merci), which often retain non-Russian spelling: happy end (English) - happy ending, pater familias (Latin) - father of the family, dum spiro spero (Latin) - while I breathe, Hope.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

Commonly used vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different linguistic areas by native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are most nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (blue, fire, grumble, good), numerals , pronouns, most function words.

Vocabulary of limited use includes words whose use is limited to a certain locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interest (slang vocabulary).

Dialectisms are features of dialects and dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language. Dialectism is a dialect inclusion in the Russian literary language. People’s speech can reflect the phonetic, word-formation, and grammatical features of a dialect, but for lexicology the most important dialectisms are those associated with the functioning of words as lexical units - lexical dialectisms, which come in several types.

Special vocabulary is associated with people’s professional activities. It includes terms and professionalisms.

Terms are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. Terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from “ordinary” words of the language in that they are, ideally, unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms, that is, each term must correspond to only one object of a given science. Each word term has a strict definition, recorded in special scientific studies or terminological dictionaries.

It is necessary to distinguish professionalisms from terms - words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes related to the professional, scientific, and production activities of people. These are semi-official and informal (they are sometimes called professional jargon) words used by people of a certain profession to designate special objects, concepts, actions, often having names in literary language.

Professional jargons exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among printing workers: cap - “large heading”, marashka - “marriage in the form of a square”; among drivers: steering wheel - “steering wheel”, brick - sign prohibiting passage). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use (in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen, etc.).

The vocabulary of limited use also includes jargon - words used by people of certain interests, activities, and habits. Words included in different jargons form interjargon (schmuck, funny, cool, party).

Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.

Having developed on the basis of Russian folk speech in all its diversity, the Russian language has absorbed all the best, all the most expressive of those means that are inherent in folk speech. And the modern Russian language, which is a fully formed communicative system, continues to draw expressive means - words, phrases, syntactic structures - from dialects, vernacular, and professional jargons. As a result of my research, which was conducted among students of the Averinskaya Secondary School, it was revealed that students actively use slang in their speech. The use of non-literary vocabulary is most often observed when schoolchildren communicate with each other and when expressing any feeling (surprise - cool!, delight - wow!, irritation - back off, etc.) But an interesting fact is that sometimes without context , very often these words and expressions are accompanied by facial expressions and gestures. Because without them it can be difficult to understand the meaning of a statement. This is confirmed by the fact that 7th grade students were not able to find all the matches to slang words and expressions (for example, the word “go crazy” without application to some situation turned out to be difficult to explain). Depending on the situation, words can express a variety of, even opposite, emotions: disappointment, irritation, surprise, joy. For example: Well, damn it, come on! (surprise), Don't bother me, damn it (irritation), Great, damn it! (delight), etc. Students believe that the emotions and feelings that overwhelm them cannot be expressed in literary language (one of the reasons for using slang).

Slang was, is and will be in school vocabulary. It can neither be prohibited nor abolished. It changes over time, some words die, others appear, just like in any other language. It is impossible to imagine a modern schoolchild without slang at all. The main advantages here are expressiveness and brevity.

You cannot treat slang as something that only pollutes the Russian language. This is an integral part of our speech. In the questionnaires I offered to the students, I asked them to indicate the words that the children use most often. Analysis of the research work and my observations made it possible to identify the following semantic groups of slang in students’ speech:

In the speech of relatives and school teachers involved in different types of activities, there are names of different subjects, including foreign ones. Such words pass from the parents' vocabulary into the children's vocabulary. As a result of the survey, some professional words and expressions that students know and use in speech were identified. For example, battery, radiator, gearbox, crop rotation, agricultural technology, medicines, pediatrician, ophthalmologist, ENT.

In my work, I tried to identify those words that are most often used by adults and students at my school in order to identify the composition of vocabulary at the present stage of its development. Students actively use non-literary vocabulary in their speech. The study proves the presence of slang, dialectal, professional, slang words and expressions in the vocabulary of schoolchildren. A sample survey of 6th and 7th grade students revealed their attitude to the use of jargon. A total of 14 people were interviewed.

When asked why students use jargon, the data presented in the table (Appendix II) was obtained.

The reason for using so many different words as expressive means is that they are considered fashionable. The answers to the questionnaires show that with age, students understand that their speech is incorrect and try to correct it. At the same time, students do not think about how they speak. To find out what percentage of schoolchildren’s speech is lexical innovation, what new words they use, and whether they understand their meaning in the same way, I conducted a survey of classmates. In the 1st part of the questionnaire, they were asked to choose from 2 synonyms (literary and slang), the one they use more often; in the 2nd part - bring the synonyms they use to literary words.

Age of respondents: 14-17 years. Number of respondents: 22 people.

Analysis of the questionnaires confirmed the assumption that in schoolchildren’s communication slang prevails over literary speech, both among boys (63% of slang words, 37% of literary words) and girls (52% and 48%, respectively) (Appendix III). Results of answers to the question “Do you try to avoid jargon?” presented in the table (Appendix I).

In the process of research, I found out that slang has existed for a long time (since the time of our mothers and grandmothers), but the degree of use of this phenomenon in the language has increased in our time. Consequently, the hypothesis that I put forward is correct: in the speech of students, vocabulary that is limited in use predominates, and professionalism and dialectisms are practically absent. In the first place are slang and jargon, while dialectisms and professionalisms are very rare. This means that our task is to learn how to appropriately use this vocabulary in accordance with the communication situation and to learn the literary norms of the language: norms of pronunciation, word formation, etc.

Bibliography

1. N. P. Borisenko. “A sad sign of the times, or what is foul language” (Newspaper “Russian Language” No. 4, 2000)
2. E. G. Borisova. On some features of modern youth jargon // Russian Language at School Magazine. – M.: 1987. - No. 3. – P. 26 – 29.
3. A. A. Bragina. Neologisms in the Russian language. – M.: Education, 1973. – 222 p.
4. M. A. Denisova. “Literary norm and practice of colloquial speech” (RYASh No. 1, 1996)
5. O. P. Ermakova. “Sources of replenishment of jargon” (“Russian language” No. 40, 1999)
6. N. S. Valgina, D. E. Rosenthal, M. I. Fomina. Modern Russian language. – M.: Higher School, 1987. – 528 p.
7. O. B. Sirotinina. Basic criteria for good speech//Good speech. - Saratov, 2001. - 234 p.

Appendix I

Survey questions for students:

1. What is youth slang?

1. Do you know the words of youth slang? (Not really)

1. Do you use these words in your speech? (often, rarely, never)

1. Highlight the ones you use most often.

1. For what purpose do you use them?

a) You think it’s fashionable and modern.

b) Needed in speech to connect words.

c) They help overcome the lack of words in my speech.

d) Make speech clearer for friends.

e) Help to assert oneself.

f) Add liveliness and humor to your speech.

6. Could you do without slang words and expressions?

The origin of the vocabulary of modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has gone through a long development process. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in ancient times, others – relatively recently.

The replenishment of Russian vocabulary proceeded in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements existing in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Vocabulary of modern Russian language

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers that differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. e. There was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living over a fairly vast territory. Thus, according to the research of some linguists, it extended from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was a Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization1 The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengal, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of farming, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European proto-language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This foundation language existed in prehistoric times on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI–VII centuries. n. e. The common Slavic language collapsed, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

Among common Slavic words there are a lot of nouns. These are primarily concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, net, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

Other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary include the following verbs: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as and some auxiliary parts of speech: above, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary constitutes the core of the Russian dictionary; it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had their source in the ancient Proto-Slavic language, were separated into three groups according to their sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th–9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities go back to the tribal unions that lived here. Therefore, the words remaining in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

The East Slavic vocabulary includes: 1) names of animals and birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: ax, blade; 3) names of household items: boot, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of native Russian words is the proper Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words that belong to the Russian vocabulary proper. Wed. lexical units:

Actually, Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: mason, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that the Russian vocabulary itself may contain words with foreign roots that have gone through the path of Russian word formation and are overgrown with Russian suffixes and prefixes: party, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex base: radio center, locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry enterprise, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

See also the new theory of the ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Church Slavonic words, or Old Church Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the oldest Slavic language, well known in Rus' since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and itself, in turn, leaves its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful; it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Church Slavonicisms began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words dating back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: zlato, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Church Slavonicisms that do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persie (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Church Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Church Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, word-formation and semantic features.

The phonetic features of Old Church Slavonicisms include:

• disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of the full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, succession - succession, helmet - helmet, milk - milk,
• combinations ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian ro-, lo-rab, rook; Wed East Slavic rob, boat,
• a combination of zhd in place of Russian zh, going back to a single pan-Slavic consonance: clothes, hope, between; Wed East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
• consonant sch in place of Russian h, also going back to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; Wed East Slavic: night, daughter,
• the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o elen, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
• vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of Russian o (е): cross, sky; Wed godfather, palate.

Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Church Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, and complex stems characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:

• prefixes voz-, from-, niz-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
• suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -ch(i), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leader, knower, screaming, striking;
• complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicisms: God-fearing, good morals, malice, superstition, gluttony.

A classification of Old Church Slavonicisms is also possible, based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

1. Most Old Slavonicisms are distinguished by their bookish coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, omnipresent, etc.
2. Sharply different from such Old Slavonicisms are those that do not stand out stylistically from the rest of the vocabulary (many of them supplanted the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning): helmet, sweet, work, moisture; Wed obsolete Old Russian: shelom, solodkiy, vologa.
3. A special group consists of Old Church Slavonicisms, used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: ashes - gunpowder, betray - convey, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.

Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by speakers of modern Russian as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. In contrast to such genetic, Old Church Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain a connection with the Old Church Slavonic, book language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: persi, lanita, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young and under. Now they are perceived as poeticism, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavicisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages, individual words came into the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the original Russian vocabulary. The names of household items were borrowed from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. Many words came to us from the Polish language: shtetl, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed through the Polish language: prapor, arrogant, angle, etc.

1 See Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the modern Russian literary language // Selected works on the Russian language, M., 1959. P. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

The borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras reflects the history of our people. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language back in the 8th–12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages ​​(Swedish, Norwegian) words related to marine fishing came to us: skerries, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In official business speech of Ancient Rus', the now obsolete words vira, tiun, yabeda, brand were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages ​​we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, blizzard, sled, dumplings, etc.

Ancient borrowings also include individual words from Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, pine forest, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from ancient Germanic languages ​​seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, calico, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Rus' was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

Many names of household items, vegetables, fruits are Greek in origin: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beetroot, lantern, bench, bathhouse; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language relate exclusively to the field of science and art. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages ​​and are widely used in scientific terminology, which has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, department, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and so on.

The Latin language also played a significant role in enriching Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated primarily with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other language (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. The Latin language in many European countries was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific works up to the 18th century. often written in Latin; Medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

Nowadays, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos – Universe + gr. nautes – (sea)-swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum – future + gr. logos – word, teaching); scuba gear (Latin aqua – water + English lung – lung). This is explained by the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such roots in different languages.

The later lexical influence of European languages ​​on Russian began to be felt in the 16th–17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the 18th century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the successes of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, interest, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, cadet, corporal, gun carriage, cartridge belt, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, tungsten, potatoes, onions.

Maritime terms came from the Dutch language: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, roadstead, yard, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Marine terms were also borrowed from English: bot, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. The influence of the English language turned out to be relatively stable: words from it penetrated into the Russian language throughout the 19th century. and later. Thus, words from the sphere of public relations, technical and sports terms, names of everyday objects go back to this source: leader, department, meeting, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak , pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. The first Gallicisms penetrated into it in the Peter the Great era, and then, at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries, due to the Gallomania of secular society, borrowings from the French language became especially popular. Among them are words for everyday use: suit, bonnet, corset, bodice, jacket, vest, coat, manteau, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, frill, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, office, buffet, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing, fleet, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also go back to the French language: mezzanine, stalls, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, ramp, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became part of our language, therefore, not only names were borrowed, but also concepts necessary to enrich Russian culture. Some French borrowings, reflecting the narrow circle of interests of the refined noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell out of use: rendezvous, plaisir, polites, etc.

Some Italian words also came to us through the French language: baroque, carbonari, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, trousers, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta , balustrade, etc.

From the Italian language, musical terms came to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words also go back to the Italian source: harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo.

There are a few borrowings from the Spanish language, which often penetrated into the Russian language through French: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

The number of foreign language borrowings should include not only individual words, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, archi-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-incongruous, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counter-play, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocal; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor and others. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become established not only in the Russian language, they have become widespread internationally.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, at different periods of our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc., penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms in this area that were born in our language were adopted by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Foreign words, entering our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus, to one degree or another, losing the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then non-Russian word endings and gender forms are changed. For example, in the words postman, prompter, sidewalk, sounds characteristic of the French language no longer sound (nasal vowels, traced [r]); in the words meeting, pudding there is no English velar n, pronounced with the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination for us unusual. The Latin word seminarium turned into seminaries, and then into seminar; the Greek analogos - into analog, and analogikos - into similar. The noun seukla, which has a plural meaning in Greek, began to be perceived as a singular noun in Russian, and not neuter, but feminine: beet.The German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ova and is transformed into marching.

Accumulating word-forming affixes, borrowed words enter the grammatical system of the Russian language and are subject to the corresponding norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most foreign words in Russian lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. Thus, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex base (resort from kurie-rep - “to treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “wig-maker”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )

As a result of de-etymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated into the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are also words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. Thus, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, so turning to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

Another group includes barbarisms, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual in nature. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, much less in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can become entrenched in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying - a tent in a camp), and later the borrowing camping became a property of the Russian language.

Along with barbarisms are foreign inclusions in Russian vocabulary: okay, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spellings; they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, for example alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of borrowed words

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

1. Unlike native Russian words, which never began with the sound [a] (which would be contrary to the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this, unioted, sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f indicates a non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
4. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gap): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
5. The consonances ge, ke, he, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in the borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
6. The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not typical for the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unusual consonances parachute, mashed potatoes, communiqué, jeep, jury are conveyed using the Russian phonetic system.
7. A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (synharmonism) - the natural use in one word of vowels of only one row: back [a], [u] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability and lack of inflections. Thus, some foreign language nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

Word-formation features of borrowings include foreign language prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, counter-admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemicize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e. constructing lexical units based on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracing papers are distinguished

Lexical tracings arise as a result of the literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: prefix, root, suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, the Russian word look is formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are calques of the Greek hudor – “water” + genos – “genus” and oxys – “sour” + genos – “genus”; similarly, the German Halbinsel served as a model for the peninsula; The English sky-scraper in Russian has the tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian khmaroches). Through tracing, the following borrowings came to us: biography (Gr. bios + grapho), superman (German ьber + Mensch); welfare (French bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called word-formative, or more precisely lexical-word-formative.

Semantic tracings are original words that, in addition to their inherent meanings in the Russian lexical system, receive new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word kartinka, meaning “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, began to be used in the meaning of “movie film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which in the source language has the following meanings: “picture,” “drawing,” “portrait,” “film,” “film shot.”

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced into use by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. was a distinctive feature of the “new style” developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his like-minded people.

Lexical and word-formation tracing was used to replenish the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, and French sources.

Another type of borrowing is lexical semi-calques - words that combine literally translated foreign and Russian word-forming elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost (cf. humanism) is added to it, or in the compound word television the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) stems are combined.

Attitude to borrowed words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, the oversaturation of speech with foreign words and expressions, on the other, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin’s: But trousers, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian...). The lack of a scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign language vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation of linguistic means: it is not taken into account that in some cases turning to foreign language book words is stylistically not justified, while in others it is mandatory, since these words form an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style serving a particular sphere of communication.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the intensification of the process of lexical borrowing, the resistance to it usually intensifies. Thus, Peter I demanded that his contemporaries write “as intelligibly as possible,” without abusing non-Russian words. M.V. Lomonosov in his “theory of three calms”, highlighting words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And when creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign language terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov spoke out against the contamination of the Russian language with French words that were fashionable at that time.

However, in the 19th century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin were forced to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that the tsarist censorship erased such borrowed words as revolution and progress from the language.

In the first years of Soviet power, the most pressing cultural and educational task was to familiarize the broad masses with knowledge and eliminate illiteracy. Under these conditions, major writers and public figures put forward a demand for simplicity of the literary language.

Nowadays, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited sphere of distribution can be justified by the readership and the stylistic affiliation of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for specialized specialists, but it can also turn out to be an insurmountable barrier to understanding a popular science text by an untrained reader.

One should also take into account the emerging trend in our age of scientific and technological progress towards the creation of international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science and production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Self-test questions

1. What explains the addition of foreign words to the Russian vocabulary?
2. What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
3. What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
4. What place do Old Church Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
5. How do the Russian language master foreign words?
6. By what phonetic and morphological features can one identify borrowed words from the Russian vocabulary?
7. What are tracing papers?
8. What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
9. What are the criteria for using foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of vocabulary in the text from the point of view of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation into the Russian language. Indicate Old Church Slavonicisms. For information, please consult etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the current growing park was a huge square where parades of the Guards Corps troops took place. Behind it could be seen the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. The building is now covered by old trees. In Pushkin's times they were only ten and three years old.

The façade of the embassy mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.

Eight windows of the ambassador’s former apartment overlook the Champ de Mars, one of which is blocked; The outer windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony designed in the strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor on the Champs de Mars side. ...Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect the southern part of the third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now this is basically where his library is located. Book treasures (currently more than three hundred thousand volumes) are already crowded in the enfilade of Countess Dolly's former rooms...

The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. It was also cozy there for Daria Fedorovna, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a hothouse flower.

In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, had difficulty enduring the domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter also depressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months, made my heart clench: the influence of the north on a person’s mood must be very strong, because among such a happy existence like mine, I always have to fight my sadness and melancholy. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of flowers, comfort and harmony. She threw, as it were, a blanket over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this regard, but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.”

There are no words, the young ambassador, like few others, knew how to feel and love life. I just felt it – let’s repeat it again – one-sidedly. This happened before, in Italy, and in the red living room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary... But it is difficult to walk around her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, no less than the state apartments of the embassy, ​​they were what has long been called the “salon of Countess Fikelmont,” where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, “both diplomats and Pushkin were at home.”

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Indicate their stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to the whips, here skinny slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone is dragged by a painful yoke to the grave, not daring to nourish hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young maidens bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Be afraid, O army of foreigners! The sons of Russia moved; both old and young rebelled; They fly at the daring, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love mad youth... 4. ...There, under the canopy of the scenes, my youthful days rushed. 5. Listen to my sad voice... 6. I didn’t want to kiss the lips of young Armidas with such torment, or fiery roses on the cheeks, or breasts full of languor... 7. It’s time to leave the boring shore... 8. ...Fields ! I am devoted to you with my soul. 9. But thank God! You are alive and unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I have always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened the granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuses me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from vain rumors, you didn’t like me... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.

QUESTION No. 1.

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE, 1) many levels of a given language and the relationships connecting them. 2) A term used by some scientists to mean a language system. LANGUAGE SYSTEM, 1) a set of units of a given language level (phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc.) in their unity and interconnectedness; classes of units and rules for their formation, transformation and combination. In this sense, they talk about the phonological, morphological, word-formation, syntactic, lexical, semantic system of a given language or (more narrowly) about systems (subsystems) of declension and conjugation, verb and name, aspect and tense, gender and case, etc. Definition language as a system dates back to F. de Saussure, prepared by the works of W. Humboldt and I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

LEVELS OF LANGUAGE, the main “tiers” of the language system - phonemes, morphemes, words (lexemes), phrases - as objects of scientific study of language (phonology, morphology, lexicology, syntax), determined by the properties of units that stand out during the sequential division of the language flow. Some scientists strive to expand the number of levels of language, elevating any of the complex units that can be distinguished to the rank of a separate level, others consider only two levels of language to be scientifically significant: differential (at this level, language acts only as a system of distinctive signs, which include, in addition to natural sounds speech, also distinctive written signs capable of distinguishing units of the semantic level) and semantic [at this level morphemes, words and phrases are distinguished as bilateral units, i.e., taking into account both their sound side, or expression, and their internal (semantic) side, or content].
The SRL course consists of the following SECTIONS: vocabulary and phraseology, phonetics and phonology, spelling, graphics and spelling, word formation, grammar (morphology and syntax), punctuation.

VOCABULARY AND PHRASEOLOGY study the vocabulary and phraseological composition of the Russian language and the patterns of its development.
PHONETICS describes the sound composition of SRL and the main sound processes occurring in language; the subject of phonology is phonemes - the shortest sound units that serve to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.
ORTHOEPY studies the norms of modern Russian literary pronunciation.
GRAPHIC ARTS introduces the composition of the Russian alphabet, the relationship between letters and sounds, and spelling - the basic principle of Russian writing - morphological, as well as phonetic and traditional spellings. Spelling is a set of rules that determine the spelling of words.
WORD FORMATION studies the morphological composition of a word and the main types of formation of new words: morphological, morphological-syntactic, lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic.
MORPHOLOGISTS I is a study of gram categories and gram forms of words. She studies the lexical and grammatical categories of words, the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings of a word and ways of expressing grammatic meanings in the Russian language.
SYNTAX- This is the study of sentences and phrases. Syntax studies the basis of syntactic units - phrases and sentences, types of syntactic connections, types of sentences and their structure.
Punctuation is built on the basis of syntax - a set of rules for placing punctuation marks.

BASIC UNITS OF LANGUAGE:
SOUNDS speech - the minimum units of the speech chain, which are the result of complex human articulatory activity and are characterized by certain acoustic and perceptual (related to the perception of speech) properties. 3. r. belong to segmental means, since they correspond to the minimal linear units of language - phonemes. Suprasegmental sound means, e.g. tone, stress, intonation are correlated with units of greater length - such as a syllable, word, syntagma. When describing 3. r. their articulatory and acoustic characteristics are taken into account. And perceptual characteristics. Articulatory all 3. r. are divided into 2 classes - vowels and consonants. From an acoustic point of view, 3. r. represent a special class of sounds. During their formation, the following are the sources: a) voice; b) noise.
PHONEME- a unit of the sound structure of a language, which serves to recognize and distinguish significant units - morphemes, of which it is included as a segmental component, and through them - to recognize and distinguish words. F. is an invariant unit of language. F. is the basic insignificant unit of language, connected with the distinction of meaning only indirectly. The phoneme performs perceptual (identification) and significative (distinctive) functions in the text. F. as an abstract unit is opposed to sound as a concrete unit in which f. is materially realized in speech.
MORPHEME- one of the basic units of language, often defined as a min sign, i.e. such a unit in which a certain phonetic form (signifier) ​​is assigned a certain content (signified) and which is not divided into simpler units of the same kind. Morpheme is the minimum meaningful unit of text, the textual representative of a morpheme. M. are distinguished, representing one morpheme, and were called its allomorphs. M. is usually considered as a direct component of the word form. So, for example, in the word form “table” there are distinguished (at the graphic level) the root M. table, the suffixal (with the meaning of diminutive) -ik- and the inflectional (expressing the meaning of the solid p. unit) -om. Depending on the function performed, morphs are divided into form-forming, word-forming and syncretic. Formative morphs include inflections and some suffixes: table-a, read-eat, read-t, read-l, read-ya, vysh-e and so on. The number of word-forming morphs includes prefixes (harmful - harmless), suffixes (dom - dom-ik), prefixoids (freelance), suffixoids (English-man). Syncretic morphs can form both new words and new forms of words. Syncretic morphs include, for example, verbal prefixes, with the help of which perfective forms are formed: to go - to go, to go, to go.
LEXEME- a word considered as a unit of the vocabulary of a language in the totality of all its specific grammatical forms and inflections expressing them, as well as all possible meanings (semantic options); abstract two-way vocabulary unit. Representing a set of forms and meanings characteristic of the same word in all its uses and implementations, a lexeme is characterized by both formal and semantic unity. The term “lexeme”, proposed in 1918 by A.M. Peshkovsky and included in the Grammar Dictionary of N.N. Durnovo, later received content in the works of V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky and A.A. Zaliznyak.
WORD FORM, a term denoting a specific word in a specific gram form. For example, “cities” is a plural gender form. Part of the noun “city”. Every gram-paradigm of a word is a system of its word form, and in real utterances every word related to the gram-changeable appears in a certain word form. In Soviet linguistics, the theory of word form was developed by A. I. Smirnitsky, who developed the views of F. F. Fortunatov, A. M. Peshkovsky, V. A. Bogoroditsky. He distinguished three moments in the structure of a word form: individualizing (lexical), expressed by the root of the word, typical (specific gram) and the formal one (generalized gram form), expressed, for example, by the ending in the word form “cities”.
OFFER is an independent syntactic unit of a message, the grammatical meaning of which is predicativeness, and the form is a minimal structure - a diagram with its own system of grammatical means for expressing syntactic tense and moods.
STATEMENT, i.e. a segment of speech that performs a communication function corresponding to the goals of communication. In the speech aspect, the utterance is individual and situational; utterances in the speech aspect are infinitely diverse.

SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS, connections and dependencies between linguistic elements (units of any complexity), simultaneously coexisting in a linear series (text, speech), for example, between neighboring sounds (hence the phenomena of synharmony, assimilation), morphs (hence the phenomena of overlapping or truncation of adjacent morphemes), etc. .P. The term was introduced by F. de Saussure. It is often used as an equivalent to the concept of functions of sequentially connected linguistic elements in the process of speech. S.O. stand out in language in contrast to paradigmatic relations, or associative connections, forming the field of study of syntagmatics. Consideration of linguistic phenomena only according to their S. was characteristic of descriptive linguistics and formed the basis of distributional analysis. Studying S.O. - an important aspect of the problem of compatibility of linguistic elements, their valence, patterns of combination in speech.

PARADIGMATIC RELATIONSHIPS, relations of opposition of several elements of language, choice of one of the mutually exclusive elements; units of language are thus united in the consciousness (in consciousness, not in reality!) of the person using the language, despite the impossibility of their real unification in the act of speech. They correspond to the “either - or” function and oppose syntagmatic relations (relations of coexistence of language elements at the moment of their real unification in the act of speech and corresponding to the “and - and” function); BY. non-linear and not simultaneous. Apparently, there is a dependence of the syntagmatic characteristics of a form on its paradigmatic properties. BY. first described by F. de Saussure as opposed syntagmatic associative relations.

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems. Lexical composition of the Russian language from the point of view of origin. Modern spelling standards. Subject and principles of Russian spelling and punctuation. Parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb.

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Moscow External Humanitarian University

Academy of Journalism

Abstract on the course

"Modern Russian language"

2002

Language as a subject of science

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

Lexicology

Lexical composition of the modern Russian language from the point of view of origin

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

Active and passive vocabulary

Phraseology

Modern spelling standards

Subject and principles of Russian spelling

Morphology as a doctrine of the formation of the Russian word

Noun

Adjective

Numeral

Pronoun

Functional parts of speech

Subject and tasks of syntax

Phrase. Offer

Simple sentence

Compound Sentences

Complex sentences

Non-union complex sentences

Principles of modern Russian punctuation

Literature

Language as a subject of science

The Russian language is the language of the Russian people (about 140 million people), whose representatives currently live not only in Russia, but also in many other countries of the world.

Language is the main means of human communication: without language, people cannot transmit and receive the necessary information and influence others.

No less important is that language is also a tool of thinking. Human thinking is based on linguistic means, and the results of mental activity are formalized in the form of certain speech units - statements complete in meaning and complete texts.

Language is a form of existence of national culture, a manifestation of the very spirit of the nation. In proverbs and sayings, songs and fairy tales that have survived to this day, in archaic words, the language contains references to the features of the past life of the people. The greatest works of literature are written in Russian.

The Russian language is the language of the Russian state, of all the most important documents that determine the life of society; language is also a means of mass communication - newspapers, radio, television, and in recent years, electronic communications carried out through a computer network. In other words, the life of society is impossible without a national language.

The place of the Russian language in linguistic systems

The Russian language occupies a special place on the “language map” of the world and belongs to the vast linguistic “family” of related Indo-European languages, which in origin go back to a common source - the Indo-European proto-language. It was spoken by the ancestors of many peoples who currently inhabit vast territories of Europe and Asia. As one of the Indo-European languages, the Russian language, due to the peculiarities of its grammar, phonetics and vocabulary, is opposed to the languages ​​of other language families: Caucasian (Georgian, Abkhaz, Chechen, etc.), Turkic (Turkish, Kazakh, Bashkir, Tatar, etc.), Finno-Ugric (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Udmurt, etc.), Semitic (Arabic, Hebrew, etc.), Sino-Tibetan and other languages.

Within the Indo-European languages, the following groups are distinguished: Germanic languages ​​(German, English, Swedish, etc.), Romance languages ​​(Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Romanian, etc.), Baltic languages ​​(Latvian, Lithuanian), Iranian (Persian, Ossetian, etc. .), Indian (Hindi, Urdu, Gypsy) and Slavic. The latter also includes Russian.

In order to correctly imagine the place of the Russian language in the system of languages, it should be borne in mind that all Slavic languages ​​are divided into three groups: East Slavic languages ​​(Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), West Slavic (Czech, Polish, Slovak and some others) and South Slavic languages ​​(Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, etc.).

So, the Russian language is a representative of the East Slavic group within the Indo-European language family.

Literary language is the highest form of the Russian language, it is the language of national culture: the language of politics and art, science and official documents, the language of everyday and business communication of cultural people.

A literary language has an important feature: it is a standardized language, that is, a literary language is based on a system of norms. Linguistic norms are the historically established patterns and rules that define.

Lexicology

Lexicology(gr. lexikos - related to the word, logos - teaching) is a section of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. Lexicology studies the word as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.

One of the main branches of lexicology is semasiology (gr. semasia - meaning, logos - teaching), or semantics (gr. sema - sign) which studies all issues related to the meaning of a word, as well as changes in the meaning of a word.

In addition to the semantics of the word, lexicology studies the origin and formation of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, the relationship of the word to the active or passive vocabulary, i.e. determines the place of a word in the lexical system, as well as in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian language (neutral, scientific, business, etc.).

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its current state, as well as issues of changes in the vocabulary of a language, changes in the meaning of a word, the main trends in the development of the vocabulary system of a language, and the reasons for changes in the meaning of a word and the vocabulary of a language as a whole are identified.

A special unit of language is word. It is impossible to imagine a language without words. One word can have several meanings. In this case, the meanings of one word are connected not only with each other, but also with the meanings of other words. The meanings of the word are also related to its origin. One meaning - a concept can be expressed in different words. A word reveals its meaning only in the system of language.

Bearing in mind the connections between the meanings of words, they speak of lexical-semantic system of language. The word as a unit of the lexical-semantic system reflects reality, and from this point of view, the systematicity of words is a reflection of the systematicity of the world. This systematicity in the word is visible, perceptible, it, so to speak, lies on the surface. The lexical-semantic level of language is a dual system, the sides of which interact and are interconnected; they cannot be divided into a system of content itself and a system of organization of this content.

Thanks to communication, a person is able to form concepts. A concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such features may be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc.

Concepts are formed and consolidated in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with a concept (significative factor) makes the word an instrument of human thinking. Without the ability of a word to name a concept, there would be no language itself.

Denoting concepts with words allows us to make do with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one from many people and name anyone, we use the word Human. There are words to describe all the richness and variety of colors of living nature red, yellow, blue, green etc. The movement of various objects in space is expressed by the word coming (man, train, bus, icebreaker and even - ice, rain, snow and so on.

With the help of the concept, words not only name, but also generalize persons, objects, phenomena according to some distinctive feature: man Woman(by gender); mathematician, physicist, philologist(by specialty, profession); amphibians, reptiles(class of vertebrates); rose, lily, chamomile, hyacinth(flowers).

If every object in the world was named by a separate word, billions of words would be required and communication would be impossible.

In modern Russian there are words that have the same lexical meaning: bandage, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen, satin and the like. Such words are called unambiguous or monosemantic. Several types of unambiguous words can be distinguished.

· First of all, proper names are unambiguous: Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok.

· As a rule, words that have recently arisen and are not yet widely used are unambiguous: lavsan, dederon, foam rubber, pizza, pizzeria, briefing and the like.

· Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous: binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase. Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are used relatively rarely in speech, which helps to preserve their unambiguity: can, beads, turquoise.

· The terminological names are often unambiguous: gastritis, fibroids, noun, phrase.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called polysemantic or polysemantic and are contrasted with unambiguous words. The polysemy of a word is usually realized in speech: the context (i.e., a semantically complete segment of speech) clarifies one of the specific meanings of a polysemantic word. For example, in the works of A.S. Pushkin we meet the word house in these values: The secluded manor house, fenced off from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river(house - building, structure); I'm scared to leave the house(house - dwelling); The whole house was ruled by one Parasha(house - household); Three houses are calling for the evening(home - family); The house was in motion(house - people living together).

Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as the main, main thing, and the others are perceived as derivatives of this main, original meaning. Yes, the word go in the seventeen-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (BAS) 26 meanings are noted, and in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by D.N. Ushakova - 40 meanings.

The word acquires ambiguity in the process of historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, their cognition by man. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the vocabulary of any language is limited, so the development of vocabulary occurs not only through the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in vocabulary.

Polysemy is also determined purely linguistically: words can be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one item to another if these items have common characteristics.

Vocabulary

Homonymy and paronymy

Homonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, for example: boron - “a pine forest growing in a dry, elevated place” and boron- “a steel drill used in dentistry.”

Lexical homonyms can be complete or partial. Full homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all forms, for example: key(from the apartment) and key(spring). A partial homonyms- these are consonant words, one of which completely coincides with only part of the forms of another word, for example: tact(meaning “play the last measure”) and tact(meaning “rules of decency”). The word with the second meaning does not have a plural form.

Close to homonyms paronyms, which are words of different meaning, with similar, although not identical, pronunciation (vacancy - vacancy). Errors in the use of paronyms usually fall on unfamiliar words; sometimes they lead to complete nonsense, for example: trial(instead of “process”); said touchily(instead of “offensive”) word; Akaki Akakievich was very biased(“attached”) to his service; words at naming(“after passing”) there is no need for them.

Usually there are two main groups of paronyms. The first group is words with the same root that belong to one part of speech, for example, humane-humanitarian-humanistic; duality - duality; heroism - heroism - heroism; economic - economical; daring - audacity and so on.

Another group consists of paronyms with different roots and different semantic origins in the process of language development, which is often associated with borrowings from other languages, for example: Indian - Indian, escalator - excavator etc.

Synonymy and antonymy

The peculiarity of Russian vocabulary is not only that one word can name a number of objects or phenomena. There is another feature: several words can express one process: go, walk, trudge, hobble, move, get into the habit; one item: weapons, armor, equipment; one sign: quick, speedy, fluent, greyhound, nimble, nimble, frisky, impetuous, lively. The property of words to have the same meaning is called synonymy.

Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, meaning the same thing, but differing from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech, for example: hippopotamus - hippopotamus, scarlet - red. The above words mean the same thing and often freely replace each other. But there are still cases when one synonym cannot replace another, for example: “Where are you jumping, proud horse, and where will you put your hooves?” (A. Pushkin). In this line in combination with the word proud use of the word horse will be inappropriate and may even take on an ironic meaning.

In addition, synonyms may differ in the degree of modernity ( airplane - airplane), use in different styles of speech ( face - face), area of ​​use ( cook - cook).

For synonyms, what distinguishes them is also important. Individual features of meaning make it possible to distinguish types of synonyms in the lexicon.

· Synonyms - doublets are also called absolute synonyms. They express concepts that are equal in meaning and interchangeable in the text: sailor - navigator, spelling - spelling, lame - lame.

· Ideographic synonyms are also called conceptual. These words are close, but not identical in meaning: do, perform, carry out; silence, stillness, stillness.

· Stylistic synonyms express the same meaning, replacing each other in different speech situations: reproduce - repeat - chisel; hoax - deception - swindle.

Antonyms- these are words that differ in sound and have directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent. Antonyms usually refer to one part of speech and form pairs.

Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases of, on the one hand, interchangeability, and on the other, opposition of words in content. At the same time, synonymous relations are characterized by semantic similarity, while antonymic relations are characterized by semantic difference.

Antonymy in language is presented worse than synonymy: only words that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts enter into antonymic relations: beautiful - ugly, much - little, morning - evening, remove - bring closer.

Words with other meanings usually do not have antonyms; compare: house, thinking, write, twenty, Kyiv, Caucasus.

Most antonyms characterize qualities ( good - bad, smart - stupid, native - alien, dense - rare and under.); there are many that indicate spatial and temporal relationships (large - small, spacious - cramped, high - low, wide - narrow; early - late, day - night); fewer antonymous pairs with quantitative meaning ( many - few; single - numerous). There are opposite names for actions, states ( cry - laugh, rejoice - grieve), but there are few of them.

There are different root and same root antonyms. A pair of different root antonyms includes words with different roots, for example: day Night, short - long. A pair of cognate antonyms includes words with the same root, differing only by prefixes that are opposite in meaning, for example: undershoot - overshoot, import - export.

Separately, intraword antonymy should be highlighted (the same word has opposite meanings), for example: borrow money(borrow) - borrow money(to lend).

Lexical composition of the modern Russian language from the point of view of origin

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed over the centuries. The basis of vocabulary is original Russian words. A word is considered primordial if it arose in the Russian language according to existing models or passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, Proto-Slavic or Indo-European.

TO native vocabulary include all words that came into the modern Russian language from ancestral languages. Therefore, the original Russian vocabulary falls into 4 layers, belonging to different eras:

1. Indo-European layer. This layer includes words that have correspondences in the roots of words in many other Indo-European languages. These are, for example, words like mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose, three, four, take, be etc. These words are original not only for Russian, but also for many other Indo-European languages.

2. Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) layer. Words of this layer have correspondences in many Slavic languages ​​and are native to them, for example: heart, spring, rain, grass, grandson, aunt, drive, kind.

3. Only about two thousand words belong to the Indo-European and Proto-Slavic layers, but they make up 25% of the words in our everyday communication. This is easy to understand: the first words, naturally, arose that reflected urgent human needs.

4. Old Russian layer. It includes words that arose during the period of the unity of Kievan Rus and are common to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages: forty, ninety, spoon, roam, brown, together, squirrel, breast.

5. Actually Russian layer combines words that arose after the 14th century, that is, after the collapse of Kievan Rus. These are almost all words with suffixes -chik / -schik, -telstv, -lk(a), -ness and many others, complex and compound words: grandmother, pilot, steamship, Moscow State University. It also includes words that changed their meaning during this period, for example, red in the meaning of a certain color (in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages ​​the word red had the meaning “good”, which was preserved in phrases beautiful girl And Red Square).

In different eras, Russian vocabulary was penetrated borrowing from other languages. For borrowing, a condition is necessary - the presence of linguistic contacts of peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc.

Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.

Borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(in particular, from the Old Church Slavonic language) and from non-Slavic languages ​​are highlighted.

One of the most powerful layers of borrowing is the layer Old Slavonicisms - borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. The Old Church Slavonic language is not the ancestor language of the Russian language, it is a language of the South Slavic group.

Old Church Slavonic words included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are called Old Slavonicisms. These words are distinguished by a number of features (phonetic, word-formative and lexical), and therefore several groups of Old Church Slavonic signs in the Russian language are distinguished:

Phonetic signs are associated with the fact that the same sounds and sound combinations of the Proto-Slavic language gave different results (reflexes) in the South Slavic (Old Church Slavonic) and East Slavic (Old Russian) languages:

1) incomplete Old Church Slavonic combinations ra, la, re, le correspond to Russian full-vowel combinations oro, olo, ere, elo; therefore, non-vocalities, which in the Russian language have full-vocal correspondences in the roots of words, are a sign of Old Slavonicisms: hail - city,voice - voice,Wednesday - middle,attraction - drag. Same with prefixes pre-, pre- having correspondence re-, before- (transgress - step over);

2) Old Slavonic ra-, la- And ro-, lo-: equal - smooth,rook - boat;

3) railway according to Russian and: alien - stranger;

4) sch according to Russian h (illuminate - candle); Participle suffixes are Old Slavonic in origin ush / yush, ush / yush: the original Russian suffixes of participles were uch / yuch, ach / yach, which later became suffixes of adjectives: current - fluid,burning - hot;

5) A at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian I: lamb - lamb,az - I;

6) e at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian O: unit - one;

7) Yu at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian at: holy fool - freak.

Derivational signs of Old Church Slavonicisms are prefixes or suffixes of Old Church Slavonic origin; some of them have Russian equivalents, for example: from- according to Russian You- (pour out - pour out), bottom- according to Russian With- (fall - subside), others do not have Russian correspondences: - stj- (action), -know (life), -TV- (battle) and others.

group lexical Old Church Slavonicisms are made up of words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic in their entirety. As a rule, these are words denoting religious concepts: lord, sin, creator, prophet, saint, resurrection. Such words may not have external distinctive features. Lexical Old Slavonicisms also include words with roots good-, god-, good-, vanity- Old Slavic origin ( prudence, superstition).

One should not think that all words with Old Slavonic signs have a connotation of bookishness or belong to high vocabulary. Many Old Slavonicisms are stylistically neutral and are neither bookish nor outdated: time, wednesday, hello, brave. There are roots of Old Slavic origin, which in some words are neutral, but in others are outdated or stylistically colored: cool - cool, agree - read.

In various historical periods, borrowings from different languages ​​intensified. Thus, in connection with the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV-XV centuries and with cultural and trade contacts of the Slavs and Turkic peoples, borrowings from Turkic languages ​​appeared, for example, sheepskin coat, herd, horse, chest and others.

During the period of transformations of Peter I, words related to navigation, shipbuilding, and military affairs were especially actively borrowed from Dutch ( gateway, harbour, boatswain), German ( soldier, storm, bayonet) languages.

In the 18th - 19th centuries, a large number of words were borrowed from French, Italian, Spanish, Polish, which are associated, first of all, with the secular nature of the culture of that time: ballet, partner, veil(from French) aria, baritone, impresario(from Italian) guitar, cigar, serenade(from Spanish) monogram(from Polish).

The Russian language contains borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​( hook, pud, herring), from Finnish ( blizzard, flounder, walrus, tundra), isolated borrowings from Chinese ( tea), Japanese ( karate, iwashi), Hungarian ( goulash).

In the 20th century, the main source of borrowings was the English language, and the borrowing process intensified in the second half of the 20th century. In the 50s borrowed words jeans, shorts, hobbies, camping, motel. In the early 90s. political, economic and cultural conditions arose that predetermined the predisposition to borrow: awareness of the country as part of the civilized world, the desire to overcome alienation from other countries, an open orientation towards the West in various areas.

In connection with the change in the political system, new realities and concepts arise, which causes the transfer of names from a foreign linguistic environment to Russian soil: parliament, prime minister, mayor, prefect, press secretary, press attaché, press release.

The literary language includes new terminology:

· computer: computer, display, file, hard drive, printer;

· sports: windsurfing, freestyle, bobsleigh, kickboxing;

· financial, commercial: barter, voucher, dealer, distributor, investor, marketing;

· political and social: image, consensus, summit, electorate;

cultural: sponsor, underground, remake, thriller, showman.

In different historical periods, including through the mediation of other languages, Greekisms penetrated into the Russian language ( philosophy, geometry, politics, democracy) and Latinisms ( republic, dictatorship, student). Most of the borrowings from Greek and Latin are included in the international language fund of scientific vocabulary.

When borrowing a word is being mastered in the Russian language: begins to be written in Russian letters, acquires pronunciation and grammatical design characteristic of the Russian language. The degree of mastery of borrowed words can be different. Most borrowed words have been completely mastered by the Russian language, and nothing reminds of their non-Russian origin.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use

TO common vocabulary These include words used (understood and used) in different linguistic spheres by native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs ( blue, fire, grumble, good), numerals, pronouns, most function words.

TO vocabulary of limited use These include words whose use is limited to a certain locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interest (slang vocabulary).

Dialectisms - These are features of dialects and dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language. Dialectism is a dialect inclusion in the Russian literary language. People’s speech may reflect phonetic, word-formation, and grammatical features of the dialect, but for lexicology the most important dialectisms are those associated with the functioning of words as lexical units - lexical dialectisms, which come in several types.

Firstly, dialectism can denote realities that exist only in a given area and do not have names in the literary language: tyes- “a vessel for liquid made of birch bark”, crumbs- “a wooden shoulder device for carrying heavy loads.”

Secondly, dialectisms include words that are used in a certain area, but have words with the same meaning in the literary language: hefty - very, pitching - duck, basque - beautiful.

Thirdly, there are dialectisms that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with the words of the literary language, but have a different meaning that does not exist in the literary language, but is characteristic of a particular dialect, for example, plow -"sweep the floor" firefighter -"fire victim" thin in the meaning of “bad” (this meaning was also inherent in the literary language in the past, hence the comparative degree worse from adjective bad) or weather- “bad weather.”

Dialectal features can also manifest themselves at other linguistic levels - in pronunciation, inflection, compatibility, etc.

Dialectisms are outside the literary language, but can be used in fiction to create local color and to characterize the speech characteristics of characters.

Dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries of various dialects, the most common of them can be reflected in the explanatory dictionary with the mark regional.

Special vocabulary associated with people's professional activities. It includes terms and professionalisms.

Terms- these are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. The terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from “ordinary” words of the language in that they are, ideally, unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms , that is, each term must correspond to only one object of a given science. Each word term has a strict definition, recorded in special scientific studies or terminological dictionaries.

There are terms that are generally understood and highly specialized. Meaning generally understood terms are known to a non-specialist, which is usually associated with studying the fundamentals of various sciences at school and with their frequent use in everyday life (for example, medical terminology) and in the media (political, economic terminology). Highly specialized terms are understandable only to specialists. Here are examples of linguistic terms of different types:

· generally understood terms: subject, predicate, suffix, verb;

· highly specialized terms: predicate, phoneme, submorph, suppletivisism.

Terms belong to the literary language and are recorded in special terminological dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries with the mark special.

It is necessary to distinguish from terms professionalism- words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes related to the professional, scientific, and production activities of people. These are semi-official and informal (they are sometimes called professional jargon) words used by people of a certain profession to designate special objects, concepts, actions, often having names in literary language. Professional jargons exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of a given profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among printing workers: a cap- “large headline”, slur- “marriage in the form of a square”; for drivers: steering wheel- "steering wheel", brick- sign prohibiting passage). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use ( in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen etc.).

Vocabulary of restricted use also includes jargon- words used by people of certain interests, activities, habits. So, for example, there are jargons of schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon tail- “failed exam, test”, dorm- "dormitory", spur, bomb- “varieties of cribs”, in the jargon of schoolchildren laces, ancestors, rodaki- parents, cupcake, baby doll, bump, pepper, person, dude, cartilage, shnyaga- boy. Words included in different jargons form interjargon ( schmuck, funny, cool, party).

In addition to the term jargon, there are also the terms “argot” and “slang”. Argo- This is a specially classified language. In previous centuries in Russia there was a slang of itinerant traders - peddlers, professional fundraisers, etc. Now we can talk about thieves' slang ( feather- knife, a gun- gun). Slang- this is a linguistic environment of oral communication different from the norm of a literary language, uniting a large group of people. A significant difference between slang and jargon is the increased emotionality of slang and the lack of selectivity of objects for naming using special words: slang is used in almost all speech situations during informal oral communication between people. So, we can talk about youth slang - a means of informal communication among young people aged approximately 12 to 30 years. Slang is updated quite quickly, and the sources of constant updating of slang are units of jargon (over the past few years, youth slang has switched from thieves' jargon as the main "supplier" of vocabulary to the jargon of drug addicts), borrowing ( steering“correct” - from English. rule gerla " girl" - from English. girl), a punning playful reinterpretation of the words of the literary language ( keyboard"keyboard", ancestors"parents"), as well as derivatives from these units ( cool, funny). At the same time, the meaning of the units used (jargon, borrowings) is usually expanded and rethought in relation to other areas of activity. For example, a drug addict will say: I'm sick of this nonsense, - and from the young man you can hear: I'm sick of this music.

Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.

Words related to vocabulary of limited use are often used in fiction to characterize characters in speech and create a certain flavor.

Active and passive vocabulary

Passive vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.

Historicisms- these are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvée, horse-drawn carriage; modern subbotnik, sunday; socialist competition, Politburo. These words fell out of use along with the objects and concepts they denoted and became passive vocabulary: we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts that talk about the past (fiction, historical research).

Archaisms- these are outdated names of phenomena and concepts that exist in modern times, for which other, modern names have arisen.

There are several types of archaisms:

1) a word may become obsolete entirely and completely fall out of use: cheeks- "cheeks", neck- "neck", right hand- "right hand", shuytsa- "left hand", so that- "to", destruction- “death”;

2) one of the meanings of a word may become obsolete, while the rest continue to be used in modern language: stomach- "life", thief- “state criminal” (False Dmitry II was called the “Tushinsky thief”); at the word give over the past 10 years the meaning of “sell” has disappeared, and the word throw away- meaning “put on sale”;

3) 1-2 sounds and/or stress location may change in a word: room - number,biblio m theca - library, mirror - mirror, cord - lace;

4) an obsolete word may differ from modern ones by a prefix and/or suffix ( friendship - friendship, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman);

5) individual grammatical forms of a word may change (cf.: the title of A. S. Pushkin’s poem “ Gypsies » - modern shape gypsies) or whether this word belongs to a certain grammatical class (words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, but in modern Russian these are masculine words).

Word obsolescence is a process, and different words may be at different stages of it. Words that have not yet fallen out of active use, but are already used less frequently than before, are called obsolete (voucher).

Outdated words are opposed neologisms - new words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.

Linguistic neologisms- these are words that appear as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.

Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways:

1) a new word, a new lexical unit appears in the language. It appears through borrowing ( shop tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the word-formation models existing in the language from the “old” word ( geography® lunography) or neologism-borrowing ( marketing® marketing, computer® computer, geek, computerization);

2) a word already existing in the language acquires a new meaning, for example, kettle- “a non-specialist with weak skills in something”, hatch- “text correction paste”, round- “negotiation phase”, pirate- “unlicensed”, shell- "garage". In the future, this meaning can break away and form a new homonym word.

If an object, concept, phenomenon, called a neologism, quickly becomes irrelevant, the neologism may not have time to become a commonly used word, master the language, and this word may immediately go into the passive vocabulary, becoming historicism. This fate befell many neologisms during the NEP and the first years of perestroika ( cooperator, gekachepist, voucher).

Language neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech and are known and understood by many. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be recognized as a new word. However, the creation of new words and word creation is also possible in other situations: a literary word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the vocabulary of the Russian language. An adult, a poet, a writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play with the rich word-forming capabilities of the language, a child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, author's) neologisms. So, we find in A.S. Pushkin's words ogoncharovanov, kuchelbeckerno, from V.V. Mayakovsky: darling, walk in a hurry, turn blue, lighten.

Sometimes author's neologisms become real words and enter the literary language, such as the words pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, drawing, included in the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, love, absent-mindedness, touching- from the works of N.M. Karamzina, fade away- from F.I. Dostoevsky), mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.

Functions obsolete words are varied. Firstly, they can be used directly to name and designate corresponding objects and phenomena. Thus, outdated words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary is used not only to denote obsolete realities and outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in literary text to indicate the time in which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform stylistic functions - they can be used to create solemnity in the text.

Phraseology

Words, when combined with each other, form phrases. One of them free, they are formed by us in speech as needed. Each word in them retains its independent meaning and performs the function of a separate member of the sentence. For example, read an interesting book, walk down the street. But there are phrases called unfree, related, or phraseological. In them, words, when combined together, lose their individual lexical meaning and form a new semantic whole, which is semantically equivalent to a separate word, for example: let the red rooster set on fire, to kick the bucket - to mess around, any minute - soon, with a pin head - small.

As a rule, such combinations are fixed in the language as a result of frequent and long-term, sometimes centuries-old, practice of use. The same combination can appear either as free or as bound, depending on the context and meaning. For example: He closed his eyes and quickly fell asleep - the Dean’s office turned a blind eye to the student’s misbehavior.

The set of lexically indivisible, integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of ready-made speech units combinations of words is called phraseology (from the Greek phrasis “expression” and logos “teaching, science”).

Phraseologisms can be divided into groups in terms of origin and tradition of use:

Expressions from everyday speech: speak your teeth, lose your head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, born in a shirt;

· expressions from professional spheres of use, from argot: bewildered, green street- from the word usage of railway workers; rough work, without a hitch- from the speech of carpenters; rub glasses;

· expressions from book and literary speech:

a) terms and phrases from scientific use: center of gravity, chain reaction, roll down an inclined plane, bring to white heat;

b) expressions from works of fiction and journalism: “And the casket just opened”(I. Krylov); “with feeling, with sense, with arrangement”(A. Griboyedov); "living Dead"(L. Tolstoy); “It smells like kerosene”(M. Koltsov).

Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example: two boots in a pair - birds of a feather, beat swords into plowshares - sheathe a sword(phraseologisms-synonyms); brew the porridge - disentangle the porridge, rolling up my sleeves - carelessly, hard to climb - easy to climb(phraseologisms-antonyms).

Phraseologisms of the Russian language are divided into two groups by origin: Original Russian and Borrowed.

Original Russian phraseological units

The emergence of native Russian phraseological units can date back to the time of existence:

· Proto-Slavic language (Common Slavic or Proto-Slavic)

Old Russian language (East Slavic)

· Old Russian and Russian languages ​​(actually Russian)

One of the indicators of the Proto-Slavic origin of a phraseological unit is therefore its parallel fixation in the Eastern, Western, South Slavic languages ​​and their dialects ( Indian summer, from head to toe); East Slavic phraseological units are registered in the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages ​​and their dialects ( written on the water with a pitchfork, from all sides); Russian phraseological units themselves are usually noted only in the Russian language ( in full Ivanovo, what does my leg want?). Original Russian phraseological units can be associated:

· With mythological ideas, folk customs, rites, rituals ( sparrow night- a dark night with a strong thunderstorm, a time of rampant evil spirits; headlong- in its original meaning it means ritual delineation for protection from evil spirits; wash the bones- the emergence of phraseological units is associated with the reburial ritual, before which the excavated remains, i.e. bones, washed.);

· With material culture, specific realities, historical facts ( as if Mamai had passed- Tatar Khan Mamai made devastating raids on Rus'; Mamaev's massacre- Khan Mamai was defeated in the Battle of Kulikovo; slurping unsalted- salt, as an expensive product, might not have been available to the unwanted guest during the treat.);

· With professional, slang, argot speech, terminological vocabulary: get off track(from the professional vocabulary of drivers), quietly(from the speech of the military, sapa is a hidden tunnel), put on the line(from gambling jargon);

· With various genres of folklore: hut on chicken legs, red maiden, grandmother said in two, little man, grasp at straws;

· With the names of specific people who created phraseological units or the context that contributed to its emergence: leavened patriotism(Vyazemsky), monkey labor, disservice, stigma into a cannon(Krylov), shut up the fountain(K. Prutkov), find yourself in a hole(Pushkin);

Borrowed phraseological units

A significant subgroup among borrowed phraseological units is borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. The Bible was an important source in this process: prodigal son, do your bit, every creature in pairs, forbidden fruit, stumbling block, root of evil, manna from heaven, bear your cross and many others. Hundreds of biblical words have enriched not only Russian, but also other languages: alpha and omega (Russian), alpha i omega (White), alfa un omega (Latvian), o alfa e o omega (Port.), alfa a omega (words) .) etc.

Phraseological units associated with ancient mythology (primarily Greek), history, literature, and also those belonging to individual authors are also international in nature: Augean stables, scales of Themis, Herostratus's glory, sink into oblivion, wheel of fortune, Olympic calm, cross the Rubicon, tantalum torment, apple of discord and etc.; ugly duck(H. H. Andersen), whipping boy(M. Twain), blond beast, revaluation of values(F. Nietzsche).

Phraseological borrowings can be presented in the form of cripples, semi-cripples and barbarisms.

Most borrowed phraseological units are literal, or rather word-by-word, component-by-component translations of foreign language phrases (calques): let's go back to our sheep(revenons a "nos moutons), have the pip(French), highlight of the program(French), blue stocking(English blue stocking), last of the mohicans, dark horse, brain drain(English), etc.

Among the semi-cripples, only part of the phraseological units are translated, while the other is borrowed without translation, i.e. transliterated.

Barbarisms are usually noted in book style: lat. omnia mea mecum porto literally “I carry everything that’s mine with me”: refers to small, unburdensome property, used to emphasize someone’s poverty, low wealth, in the sense of a contemptuous attitude towards excessive property, comfort in everyday life, etc., indicates a person’s spiritual wealth, his immaterial wealth.

Phraseological phrases are widely used in various styles of speech.

In fiction, journalism, and colloquial speech, the use of phraseological units is associated with their expressive capabilities. Imagery and expression, characteristic of a significant part of phraseological phrases, help to avoid stereotypes, dryness, and impersonality in verbal communication. At the same time, phraseological units of a bookish nature have an “increased” expressive and stylistic coloring; their use imparts solemnity, poetry, and bookishness to speech.

Colloquial phraseological units are characterized by a “reduced” expressive-stylistic coloring, which makes it possible to express irony, familiarity, contempt, etc. It is necessary to take into account the particularly reduced nature of phraseological units located on the periphery of the literary language, colloquial phraseological units ( go crazy with fat, just spit, slurp cabbage soup with bast shoes) and roughly colloquial ( no skin, no face, show Kuzka's mother, spawn). These specific properties of phraseological units are especially clearly visible when compared with commonly used lexical synonyms. Compare: die - lay down your head - break your neck, deceive - mislead - lead by the nose.

In all styles of speech, inter-style phraseological units with “zero” connotation are widely used, such as from day to day, secret ballot, go crazy.

Modern spelling standards

Knowing the rules of correct pronunciation makes it easier for people to communicate, makes it possible to think about the content of what they are talking about, without being distracted by how certain words are pronounced. Pronunciation changes from generation to generation. Constant changes in pronunciation lead to the presence of pronunciation variations in orthoepy, which are most often associated with different pronunciation styles.

Modern spelling norms are a consistent system that is developing and improving.

Orthoepic norms are not something frozen, once and for all established and unchangeable. The orthoepic norm is the standard pronunciation and stress.

Among the main pronunciation norms are:

· pronunciation of unstressed vowels.

· pronunciation of unstressed vowels and their combinations

· some grammatical forms, for example, gender endings. singular case - by her, oh

Orthoepic norms are associated with the sound side of literary speech. Orthoepy - correct speech. Orthoepy is a set of rules for the literary pronunciation of sounds and sound combinations.

Depending on the rate of speech, pronunciation styles are distinguished:

At a slow pace of speech - full style:

Clear pronunciation of sounds

Careful articulation

An essential condition of oratory.

With a fast pace of speech - incomplete style:

Less clear pronunciation of sounds

Strong reduction of sounds, that is, reduction of sounds.

Classification of pronunciation styles depending on the stylistic orientation and the presence or absence of expressive coloring.

The neutral style of pronunciation is not stylistically colored.

Stylistically colored:

1. High (bookish, academic) style;

2. Conversational style.

Different pronunciation styles lead to the presence of pronunciation variants in orthoepy.

According to the norms of the neutral style of pronunciation, words of the neutral style are formatted. Words of high style - according to the norms of high style pronunciation, colloquial words - according to the norms of colloquial style of pronunciation. The difference between pronunciation styles may allow some norms of the neutral style to have their counterparts in the high and colloquial styles:

High style [sonnet] - neutral style [sLnet].

Neutral style [kLgda] - conversational [kLda].

The book style in spelling is called high. The high style of pronunciation strictly adheres to orthoepic norms and does not allow pronunciation variations.

The conversational style of pronunciation is characterized by:

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