Table invention and discovery of new times. Technical discoveries and inventions of the XV-XVI centuries. Technology of the 16th-18th centuries. before the Industrial Revolution

Introduction

Chapter 1. Development of science

1 Scientific revolution. Renaissance (late XV - 1540)

2 Second phase of the scientific revolution (1540-1650)

3 The third phase of the scientific revolution (2nd half of the 17th century)

4 Science in the first half of the 18th century

Chapter 2. Development of technology. Industrial Revolution

1 Technology of the 16th-18th centuries. before the Industrial Revolution

2 Industrial Revolution

Chapter 3. The influence of the development of science and technology on society

1 The influence of science

2 Impact of technology

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

scientific modern technology industrial

Early modern times are considered in history as a period in the history of mankind (late 15th - late 18th centuries), associated with the emergence of capitalism in the depths of the feudal system. This era is characterized by great scientific and geographical discoveries, significant technical inventions, rapid growth of production and trade, global changes in the spiritual life of people and in the social structure of society.

These changes resulted in a completely new historical phenomenon with its own characteristics - industrial revolution.

The industrial revolution, as the transition from the manufacturing to the machine, factory, stage of production, was a true revolution that occurs only once in the history of each country. A characteristic feature of the industrial revolution was the rapid growth of productive forces based on large-scale machine industry and the establishment of capitalism as the dominant world economic system.

Earlier than other countries, the industrial revolution and associated socio-economic changes began in England - in the 60s. XVIII century The revolution occurred not only in the technological sphere: in England the structure of a bourgeois industrial society was formed.

In general, a huge number of works have been created on this topic. Generalized material for developing the topic has already been collected. In their works, the development of Europe in early modern times, scientific progress, the process of the influence of the development of science and technology on society were studied or touched upon by such researchers as Helmut Koenigsberger, Paul Mantoux, John Bernal. In their works, the authors pay attention to the reasons for the development of science, the influence of the Renaissance on scientific and technological progress, and consider the concept and essence of the industrial revolution. And as a consequence, the influence of scientific and technological development on human society. The result of these works is expressed in completely fair words: In 1789, Europe was beginning to look modern. In the West, the personal dependence of peasants was practically eliminated, and in the East, all governments (with the exception of Russia) at least began, albeit very cautiously, to deal with this problem. Slavery and the slave trade still flourished, but were no longer considered normal and natural and increasingly became objects of criticism. Well-being, or even just a life provided with food, clothing and housing, was still the privilege of a minority; however, the number of wealthy people was growing. Helmut Koenigsberger studied and covered the entire period of the early modern period of the 16th-18th centuries. John Bernal described the impact of science on society. His work is an outline of the development of science in modern times, an inventory of the main scientific events of this period.

Based on the degree of development of the topic, the purpose of this work is to study the development of science and technology in the early modern period, to study the basic premises and history of the industrial revolution through the analysis of theoretical works on this topic.

The subject of this work is the science and technology of early modern times and the industrial revolution, and the object is the development of science and technology in early modern Europe and the history of the industrial revolution.

The above goal is achieved through a step-by-step solution to a number of interrelated research tasks. These include:

Study the development of technology;

To trace the dynamics of the development of science over the entire period of early modern times;

Determine the prerequisites for the industrial revolution;

Determine the impact of the development of science and technology on society.

Chapter 1. Development of science

.1 Scientific revolution. Renaissance (late XV - 1540)

The Renaissance is replete with important descriptive works covering all areas of human experience. The breadth of interests of that time is manifested in the achievements of a man who himself was the personification of his age - the great universal engineer, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci. The two greatest victories of this era were the clear presentation of the system of heavens, in the center of which was the Sun - the system of Copernicus in his work “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres” and the first detailed anatomy human body, shown in the work of Vesalius; works published simultaneously in 1543. They were the first to show what the celestial spheres or the human body looked like to someone who had an inquisitive enough gaze to see for himself, and not look through the glasses of ancient authority. They were put forward and accepted from the very beginning by the new secular society, which also learned to observe and experiment. Only later, when the political consequences of the new view began to emerge, did the authorities become afraid and tried, although it was already too late, to prevent its spread.

These most important works were followed by many others concerning various areas of the created and natural, which were neglected by the ancients. Among them are “Pyrotechnics” by Biringuccio (1480-1539), published in 1540, which describes the metal, glass and chemical industries, and “On the Nature of Fossils” by Georg Bauer or Agricola (1490-1555), probably the best at that time a treatise on technology, for it described not only minerals and metals, but also the practice and even the economics of mining. Later, in books such as the works of Gesner (1516-1565), Rondelet (1507-1566) and Belon (1517-1564), many magnificent descriptions of animals and plants of both the Old and New Worlds appeared. To these can also be added countless reports of exploration of new countries, including the Letters of Amerigo Vespucci, which appeared in 1504, which led, without good reason, to the naming of a newly discovered continent after him, and Pigafetta's first account of a trip around the world Magellan in 1519-1522.

The initial phase of the scientific revolution was more a phase of description and criticism than of constructive thought. This thought should have come later. First, broad horizons are explored and old authorities are refuted. Improvements in craftsmanship and techniques provided positive incentives and material resources for the progress of science.

The Copernican revolution. It is no coincidence that it was in the field of astronomy, so closely related to geography, that the first and in some respects the most important revolution took place. This revolution was caused by a clear and detailed description Copernicus of the Earth's rotation around its axis and its motion around the stationary Sun. Descriptive astronomy was at that time the only science that had accumulated enough observations and developed sufficiently accurate mathematical methods to clearly state hypotheses and test them using digital calculations. All this in itself might not lead to any radical progress.

The practical incentive was the perceived need by the church to reform the calendar. The old Julian calendar, established by Julius Caesar, was clearly outdated by that time. Correcting it required accurate calculations of the true length of the year. Until then, when calculating the movement of celestial bodies and, accordingly, the length of the year, they used the calculations of the Greek mathematician Ptolemy (2nd century AD), which implied that the celestial bodies revolve around the stationary Earth. To obtain an accurate representation, that is, the correspondence of the supposed motion of the planets to actual observations, Ptolemy developed a geometric scheme of concentric circles and epicycles, circles on circles. As observations were made more and more carefully during the late Middle Ages, new epicycles had to be added; the scheme became frighteningly complex, but still did not provide the required accuracy. Copernicus decisively cut this problematic knot, proposing a new model of the universe with the Sun in the center and the Earth, which rotates around the Sun in the annual cycle and around its axis in the daily cycle.

Copernicus introduced a new critical spirit into astronomy, a correct appreciation of aesthetic form and the inspiration of newly edited texts of ancient authors, which could also be used to compare the views of ancient authorities.

The creation of the heliocentric system of the world was the result of many years of work by Copernicus. He began with attempts to improve the geocentric system of the world set out in Ptolemy's Almagest. Numerous works in this direction before Copernicus were reduced either to a more precise definition of the elements of those deferents and epicycles through which Ptolemy presented the movements of celestial bodies, or to the addition of new epicycles. Copernicus, having understood the relationship between the visible movements of the planets and the Sun, well known to Ptolemy, built a heliocentric system of the world on this basis. Thanks to her, a number of incomprehensible patterns of planetary movement from the point of view of the geocentric system received a correct explanation (it should be noted that the idea of ​​the Earth’s rotation around the Sun was first expressed around 280 BC by the Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos). The tables compiled by Copernicus are much more accurate than the tables of Ptolemy, which was of great importance for the rapidly developing navigation of that time. Their widespread use contributed to the spread of the heliocentric system of the world.

The results of the work were summarized by Copernicus in his work “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” published in 1543, shortly before his death. Copernicus developed new philosophical ideas only to the extent that it was necessary for the immediate practical needs of astronomy. He retained the idea of ​​a finite Universe, limited by the sphere of fixed stars, although this was no longer necessary (the existence and finite dimensions of the sphere of fixed stars were only an inevitable consequence of the idea of ​​​​the immobility of the Earth). Copernicus sought first of all to ensure that his work was as complete guide to the solution of all astronomical problems, which was the “Great Mathematical Construction” of Ptolemy. Therefore, he focused on improving Ptolemy's mathematical theories.

The significance of the heliocentric system was that the Earth, previously considered the center of the world, was relegated to the position of one of the planets. A new idea arose - about the unity of the world, that “heaven” and “earth” are subject to the same laws.

.2 Second phase of the scientific revolution (1540-1650)

This period has not received a corresponding name in historical science. In the field of science, this period was marked by the first significant triumph of a new experimental approach to phenomena. The immediate beginning of this period should be considered the explanation of the solar system first formulated by Copernicus, and its end was the establishment of this system, despite the condemnation of the church, thanks to the works of Galileo. Gilbert's definition of the Earth as a magnet in 1600 and Harvey's discovery of blood circulation in 1628 date back to the same period. At the same time, two greatest inventions were used for the first time, expanding the possibilities of observing nature - the telescope and microscope.

From an economic point of view, at this time countries such as Holland and then England received advantages. This was due to the development of new sea routes and the decline of old ones, in which continental Europe, namely the German lands and Italy, played an important role. It was Holland and England, including northern France, that became the object of attraction for artisans from Italy, who brought with them the achievements of the Renaissance. The driving force of development was the growing rich bourgeoisie, which seized power in Holland and England.

The main questions of the era were questions related to astronomy, the solution of which could be used in navigation. The most important object of study was this complex mechanism like the human body.

Justification of the solar system. Copernicus's theory in its original form lacked an accurate description of the orbits of the planets - something astronomers still had to do - as well as convincing arguments to explain the imperceptibility of the Earth's motion - a task that involved the creation of a new science - dynamics.

The first who truly appreciated the significance of Copernicus’s work was the Italian scientist Giordano Bruno, who paid with his life for his courageous struggle against church scholastic obscurantism, and in particular for the defense of the heliocentric system; he was burned in Rome in 1600. Bruno made people think and argue about Copernicus' theory. For every Catholic who was frightened by his execution, there were, apparently, the same number of Protestants inspired by his feat.

The teachings of Copernicus received new mathematical confirmation in the works of the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Having at his disposal the observational materials of the latter, and having carried out many new studies, Kepler brilliantly developed “Copernican astronomy”. The most important arguments in favor of the heliocentric system were Kepler's famous laws. The sun, according to Kepler, is the source of the force that moves the planets.

In the 16th century A telescope appears, which was a decisive factor in favor of recognizing a new view of the structure of the sky. A means has appeared that allows everyone to look at the Sun, Moon and other planets. A means of thoroughly studying celestial bodies has appeared.

The telescope was destined to become one of the greatest instruments of this period. And one of the first scientists to use the new device was Galileo Galilei. In 1610-1611 His work “Starry Messenger” was published, where he reported on his first astronomical discoveries made using the telescope he designed. It is characteristic that this work and the subsequent works of Galileo, which contained many new discoveries (mountains and craters on the surface of the Moon, satellites of Jupiter, phases of Venus, sunspots, rotation of the Sun, etc.), received recognition even in church circles, which before from time to time they tolerated the scientist’s adherence to the heliocentric system. Pope Urban VIII was considered a friend of Galileo. However, the Dominicans and Jesuits turned out to be stronger than the fragile papal patronage. Based on their denunciation, in 1633 Galileo was put on trial by the Inquisition in Rome and almost shared the fate of Bruno. Only at the cost of renouncing his views did he save his life. The doctrine of the movement of the Earth was declared heresy.

Galileo, through his activities, ensured the triumph of the heliocentric system. His discoveries became an integral part of physics and served as the foundation of scientific natural science.

Physics and Mathematics. Despite the observational evidence of the heliocentric system, new questions arose about how such a system could exist, and it was necessary to eliminate all the objections raised against it. It was necessary to explain how the Earth moves around the Sun without hurricane winds and why objects thrown up do not remain behind. All these questions required a serious study of the free movement of bodies. Research on the trajectories of falling nuclei is beginning, the theory of momentum is being developed, but all this still lacks logical and mathematical justification.

Galileo Galilei can be considered the founder of experimental physics. Galileo began to question all generally accepted views, turning to the help of a new method - the experimental method. Whether he actually threw weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa or not is irrelevant; We know that to make accurate measurements of the fall of bodies, he used both a pendulum and an inclined plane in his experiments. Galileo created certain examples of physics methods that were used in subsequent centuries.

Galileo's achievements would not have been possible if he had not possessed mathematical knowledge. The French mathematician François Viète (1540-1603), who is practically the founder of elementary algebra, distinguished himself significantly in this area. He was the first to introduce symbolic (letter) notation for both known quantities and unknown quantities, not only in algebra, but also in trigonometry. The use of algebraic methods greatly simplified the calculations. Fractions were introduced by the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin in 1585, and logarithms were introduced by John Napier in 1614. The reduction and simplification of calculations led to an increase in the number of astronomers and physicists.

The development of mathematics mainly led to the simplification of calculations, which in turn made it possible to perform more actions and more accurately, from which the development of physics and mathematics resulted.

Anatomy. Back in 1543, the Flemish scientist Andreas Vesalius published his famous work “On the Structure of the Human Body.” Vesalius refuted many medieval scholastic ideas about the structure human body, however, in his writings he did not answer important question associated with blood circulation.

It was up to the Englishman William Harvey (1578-1657) to resolve this issue. He was educated in Padua, which gave him the opportunity to combine Italian traditions in the field of anatomy with the new passion for experimental science that was beginning to make its way in England. Harvey sought an explanation for the movement of blood in the body based on the laws of mechanics. His work, An Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood of Animals, published in 1628, represents a presentation of a new kind of anatomy and physiology. The discovery made a real revolution in physiology, akin to the one that Copernicus made in astronomy. Harvey viewed the body as a hydraulic machine where there is no place for spirits. He wrote: “Consequently, the heart is the basis of life and the sun of the microcosm, just as the Sun can be called the heart of the world. Depending on the activity of the heart, the blood moves, is enlivened, and resists putrefaction and thickening. Nourishing, warming and setting in motion, the blood - this divine hearth - serves the entire body; it is the foundation of life and the producer of everything.”

Thus, Harvey placed the heart in a central place in the body, like the Sun in the universe. The idea of ​​an organism as a machine appeared. However, at that time this discovery had not yet influenced medicine, but the discovery became the basis for “rational physiology”, and, importantly, the idea of ​​the body as a collection of organs connected and nourished by blood vessels appeared.

.3 The third phase of the scientific revolution (2nd half of the 17th century)

This is the period when science “matures” and takes root in the most developed countries, such as France and England. This was ensured by the relative stability that came to them. In England, the bourgeoisie that had established itself after the revolution generously encouraged the development of science. The main issues were such areas as hydraulics, artillery and navigation. In particular, it was navigation that pushed the development of science.

The second half of the 17th century is the time of the creation of the Royal Scientific Society of London (1662) and the Royal French Academy (1666). Over time, scientists in England and France, in the course of their work, realized the need for such institutions, since their activities could bring greater practical benefits and that in order to carry them out they should have more funds and receive fuller and wider recognition.

It should be noted that the formed society and their institutions led to the fact that science became an institution with its own distinctive features. The new institute began to have sufficient authority to protect itself from pseudoscience, to show the general public, who have little understanding of where science is and where quackery is.

At this time, science is developing in many directions, new phenomena are being studied. These included optics and the theory of light, which, thanks to the telescope, were closely related to astronomy and, thanks to the microscope, to biology. In addition, pneumatics, where the techniques developed in connection with the discovery of the void were to have such enormous industrial significance in the final estimate. The question of emptiness has also been the center of philosophical controversy, dating back to the ancient Greeks. New experimental evidence of its existence helped to revive the atomistic hypothesis of Democritus. The revived atomistic or corpuscular theory turned out to be the first key to rational, quantitative explanations in the field of chemistry, which until then had remained the realm of mere technical recipes and mythical explanations. Chemistry, in turn, was connected with the principles of physiology. All such questions as the nature of the blood, the functions of the lungs, the action of the nerves and muscles, and the processes of digestion, were the subject of discussion and experimentation in the spirit of the new materialistic philosophy.

A new picture of the world. By the second half of the 17th century, science began to develop in all areas; the new generation of scientists no longer needed to restrain the onslaught of the old, those who defended the picture of the world put forward by Aristotle. According to him, the Earth is a sphere in the center of the Universe, located below the Moon, i.e., the sublunar sphere of imperfect material bodies. Above are the concentric celestial spheres of the Moon, Sun and stars, composed of purer, unearthly matter; they revolve around the Earth. Each part of the universe has a place assigned to it, strives to occupy it and find peace. It was a logically consistent system of the structure of the Universe and the laws of physics operating in it, and it seemed to correspond to ordinary ideas and common sense. Medieval society accepted it because the theory fit the Bible. This picture was destroyed by Copernicus and Galileo. Their theories were recognized almost unanimously by the new science.

A large number of new theories are emerging, including the corpuscular theory of Gassendi (1592-1655). He took as a basis the theory of atoms created by Epicurus. According to his hypothesis, atoms were particles with mass and inertia, they moved in emptiness, the existence of which was proved by Galileo's followers.

The nature of light begins to be actively explored; Optics is being actively studied, the theory appears that light is a flow of particles; Newton actively worked in this area, studying optical phenomena. He came to the conclusion that light has a wave nature and that each color is a stream of light of a different wavelength. The Dutch scientist Huygens developed the wave theory of light mathematically.

The development of optics led to the appearance of the microscope. The exact date of its appearance is unknown. The first to create a microscope that creates a magnification of 300 times was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), the world of the infinitesimal was discovered. Using the new device, insects were studied, bacteria were discovered, and Harvey's theory was proven and fully confirmed.

In 1644, the Italian scientist Torricelli discovered atmospheric pressure and created a barometer, it was a tube filled with mercury. As a result of the experiments, it was noticed that the space above the column of mercury was a real void. Thus the assumption that emptiness cannot exist was rejected. And later Pascal confirmed this theory by climbing a mountain with a barometer and recording the change in pressure. The discovery of the void will play a huge role in the future, leading to the creation of the steam engine.

Despite the general progress of science, the main success of the 17th century was the discovery of universal gravitation by Isaac Newton (1642-1727). His main work, “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,” was published in 1687, in which he substantiated and outlined his theory. In his work “Principles”, which N. summarized the results obtained by his predecessors (G. Galileo, I. Kepler, R. Descartes, H. Huygens, J. Borelli, Hooke, E. Halley, etc.), and his own research and for the first time created a single harmonious system of terrestrial and celestial mechanics, which formed the basis of all classical physics. Newton found an explanation for the discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo, did what they had tried to do before him - physically explain the movement of the planets around the Sun and what keeps them in their orbits.

Thus, Newton's discoveries serve as the crown of the scientific revolution. The laws he put forward are the greatest discoveries in the field of physics and natural science, which moved science for more than 200 years. At the end of the 17th century, the scientific revolution ended, successes were achieved in physics, mathematics, and biology. The development of chemistry had not yet begun, but all the prerequisites for this arose. And most importantly, science was formed as an institution; The old medieval picture of the world was destroyed and a new one was formed.

.4 Science in the first half of the 18th century

This is a period of relative calm in science. This is the time of mastering the scientific progress that was in the 17th century. A new philosophy appeared, which was faced with the task of proving the existence of an alternative to the classical religious picture of the world. Newton's model of the world was approved.

During this era, the spread of science began far beyond the borders of England, France and Holland. In the image of the French and English academies, academies of sciences were created in the German countries and Austria. Their own academies were created in Sweden and Russia (1724). The creation of a powerful scientific base in Russia was destined to Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1765).

Science has found its place. Despite the relative calm, development continued, interest in electricity appeared, but this area continued to be perceived as something secondary.

Thanks to Newton, mathematical astronomy was firmly established as the dominant branch of science, and throughout the 18th century its development did not stop for a minute.

Development of science in the 16th-18th centuries. played a huge role in the history of mankind. New experimental science has made it possible to look at the world with different eyes. Science has turned into an institution and has begun to comprehensively influence all spheres of the economy and society. Its development is closely intertwined with the development of technology, which in this era reached new heights of its development.

Chapter 2. Development of technology. Industrial Revolution

.1 Technology of the 16th-18th centuries. before the Industrial Revolution

Technology during the period of the XVI-XVII centuries. has passed through a gigantic stage of its development. During this era, a new form of production began to dominate, which originated in the XIV-XVI centuries. in Italy - manufactory. Manufactory - (from Latin manus - hand and factura - production), a capitalist enterprise based on the division of labor and manual craft technology.

Manufactures first appeared in Italy back in the 14th century. This country was the first to develop conditions that contributed to the emergence of capitalism in industry. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. manufactories began to be created in Germany, England, the Netherlands, and France. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. cloth, silk, weapons, glass and other manufactories spread throughout all European countries.

Since the Middle Ages, a large number of technical means were inherited, which were used in the 16th century. Along with hand tools, muscular drives were increasingly used, as well as devices using the power of animals (especially horses), wind power (from the 9th-10th centuries) and water power. In the XIII-XIV centuries. Iron foundry production emerges. In the 15th century Blast furnaces appear, producing cast iron for further processing into iron. All these were the beginnings of new technical means that would later characterize the manufacturing era.

A progressive feature of the manufacturing period was a sharp increase in invention compared to the Middle Ages. The number of projects and experiments grew from century to century.

Among the inventors there were representatives of various segments of the population. However, the main role in the creation of new inventions was played by production workers: hydraulic engineers, weavers, blacksmiths, watchmakers, mining masters, and builders of military structures.

In all areas of increasingly complex material production and military affairs - in shipbuilding, building construction, artillery, fortification - there is a need for more accurate calculations, theoretical understanding, and generalization of technical experience. There is an increasing rapprochement between technology and science. Almost all the outstanding scientists of that time who worked in the field of natural and exact sciences - G. Galileo, H. Huygens, I. Newton, G. Leibniz - were successfully involved in invention.

In the 16th century Attempts began to legally protect the interests of technology innovators by issuing them privileges for inventions.

Some general rules Such privileges began to be developed in the 15th century. in Venice, and from the 16th century - in Germany and England. But patent legislation first took shape in England in 1624. In other countries, corresponding laws were adopted later.

The establishment of ever closer ties between science and technical “skills” prompted even at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. Leonardo da Vinci proved the need to connect theory with practice. He resolutely rejected the “misconceptions of those who use practice without science,” comparing such people with helmsmen who “step onto a ship without a rudder or compass.” On the other hand, Leonardo was an opponent of pure theorizing. “You need to write about theory and then about practice,” he pointed out. “When you expound the science of the movement of water, do not forget to give its practical applications under each position, so that your science is not useless.”

Engines. Using the power of water. Since the Middle Ages, the use of devices using the power of wind and water - water and windmills - has been inherited. Since devices using the power of wind and water were first used in flour milling, the word “mill” in all European languages later acquired wider meaning. This became the name for various installations with wind or water engines (sometimes with muscular or horse drives), as well as enterprises where such equipment was used.

During the manufacturing period, water engines became widespread in all branches of production - in the processing of agricultural products (in flour milling, grain mills, butter churns, etc.), in the textile industry (in silk spinning mills, fulling mills), as well as in sawmills, and in paper production , gunpowder, etc.

Usually the power of the water wheel did not exceed several tens of kilowatts, the number of revolutions of the water wheel was also insignificant, from about 1 to 10 rpm. Depending on the design of the water wheel, its efficiency ranged from 0.3 to 0.75.

Water engines became especially important in mining and metallurgy, where they were used for pumping water from mines, for washing ores and crushing them, for driving blowers serving blast furnaces and various hearths, for servicing hammers and drilling machines, etc. d.

The capabilities of all types of engines used during the period under review were limited. The minds of the inventors of that time worked to find an engine that was universal in its application, independent of the place of its operation (for example, the presence of water flows).

At first, the inventors followed the path of an unrealistic search for a perpetual motion machine, that is, a machine that, without receiving any energy from the outside, is itself capable of operating for an unlimited time (until its parts deteriorate) and producing useful work. The dream of creating a perpetual motion machine was born back in the 12th century. In the XVI-XVIII period, many projects for such an engine were put forward.

In 1775, the Paris Academy of Sciences decided not to consider any projects of this kind as contrary to common sense. However, despite all the evidence of the impossibility of creating a perpetual motion machine, this dream did not leave the inventors for a very long time.

Mining and metallurgy. Production of cast iron, iron and steel.

During this period, hydraulic motors were most widely used in the mining industry, where they were used to drive lifting, drainage, ventilation units, crushing and transport mechanisms.

The development of productive forces urgently required an increase in the production of iron ore, coal and other minerals. The expansion of trade relations during the manufacturing period increased the demand for precious metals - gold and silver, the production of which increased significantly in this regard. Extensive production experience in the field of mining, accumulated by the beginning of the 16th century. in Western Europe, was first summarized by the outstanding German scientist Agricola (1494-1555) in his work “On Mining and Metallurgy” (1550).

If during the period of craft production the production of iron directly from iron ore by the raw-blown method prevailed, then the manufacturing stage was characterized by the division of metallurgical production into iron smelting (blast furnace process), iron foundry (casting of finished iron products), conversion of cast iron into iron and further processing of iron. At the same time, in a number of areas, the old cheese-making method of obtaining iron was preserved. In the XV-XVIII centuries. all European countries are seeing an increase in the size of blast furnaces and the use of more varied varieties than before iron ores.

Before smelting, the ore underwent a process called “beneficiation.” It was sorted, crushed and washed to remove waste rock.

On the continent of Europe, blast furnaces, as a rule, ran on wood fuel (with the addition of special substances called fluxes).

The largest German blast furnaces in the mid-18th century. usually had 7-7.5 m in height, French and Swedish - 7.5-8 m. The dimensions of the Ural charcoal domains were more significant. In the second half of the 18th century. their height reached from 10.5 to 13 m, and their diameter was up to 4 m. However, the future lay with furnaces that used mineral fuel.

At ironworks (or in the corresponding workshops of metallurgical enterprises that combined iron smelting and iron production), cast iron was converted into iron in one or sequentially in two furnaces. The resulting kritsa - a spongy lump of hot iron impregnated with slag - was removed from the forge and subjected to crimping under water-actuated and hand hammers.

The iron blank went into further processing and was transformed into graded iron through various forging and rolling operations.

Steel was used extremely rarely, only for small tools and expensive weapons. It was made by handicraft methods, with the “secrets” being passed down by inheritance. There were three ways to make steel: in furnaces by reprocessing special grades of cast iron; surface carburization of iron products (cementation) in special furnaces and melting of metal in crucibles (cast steel).

In copper smelting production, several furnaces were used in succession, in which crude copper was first extracted from ores in an alloy and combined with other substances, and then pure copper.

Metalworking. Turning. During the manufacturing period, the production of metal tools and machine parts continued to be done by hand. The continuous growth in the use of ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals has made it necessary to improve metalworking techniques. The lathe, which arose at one time as a universal mechanism for turning products made of wood, bone and other materials, is increasingly used in the field of metalworking.

Improvement of lathes with hand and foot drives for turning complex shaped products, cutting screws, etc., starting from the 16th century. It's happening faster and faster.

Throughout the 17th century. lathe underwent further improvements in France, Germany, Holland and other countries.

Textile production. Of great interest is the development of textile production technology, where many innovations were made compared to the craft period. This applies primarily to the silk industry. Back in the 14th century. In Italian silk production, “twist mills” began to spread, initially with manual drive.

The work of the Italian designer Vittorio Zonca (beginning of the 17th century) describes already quite complex water-based silk spinning installations. IN early XVII I century similar machines were mastered in England, then in France.

In the 15th century a self-spinning wheel (with manual drive) appeared. It made it possible to simultaneously twist and wind the thread.

The largest invention in textile production was the knitting machine, designed in 1589 by the English student W. Lee. This complex machine, consisting of hundreds of knitting needles, made it possible to begin the production of machine-knitted stockings. The inventor, however, was unable to organize hosiery production in his homeland and was forced to move to France, where at the beginning of the 17th century. He and his brother built the first hosiery workshops. After this, machine knitting of stockings spread to other countries: England, Holland, Austria, Saxony.

During the 16th and 17th centuries. There have been significant changes in dyeing techniques. Already in the middle of the 16th century. Indigo began to be used in Europe. In 1630, a method of dyeing fabrics bright red was invented.

The advent of steam engines. From about the last third of the 17th century. In countries with the most developed manufacturing production, elements of new machine technology are emerging, which will receive full development during the period of the industrial revolution. This applies primarily to the development of steam power.

Early projects using steam power for propulsion various mechanisms we can find in the works of many inventors of the 17th century. (J. Branca, S. de Caux, E. Somerset-Worcester, etc.)

In the development of projects for the first steam engines at the end of the 17th century. Denis Papin played a prominent role. As new research shows, the idea of ​​such a machine could have originally been submitted to Papen by the scientist H. Huygens.

In 1673, Huygens presented to the Paris Academy of Sciences a project for a gunpowder engine in the form of a cylinder with a piston. The gunpowder, exploding under the piston, was supposed to push it upward. It was assumed that after the powder gases cooled, the reverse movement of the piston would occur under the influence of atmospheric pressure. Experiments with the engine model were carried out for two years, but did not produce significant results. Huygens' project is interesting in that it anticipated the idea of ​​the internal combustion engine.

In 1690, Papen proposed a steam piston engine, similar in design to Huygens' engine. The steam boiler, cylinder and condenser were separated from each other (the water was both boiled and cooled in the working cylinder). Papin suggested that the new engine could be applied not only “to lifting water or ore from mines,” but also “for many other similar things.” But neither this nor subsequent (for example, put forward in 1705-1706) projects and models of Papen practical application have not received. By the way, in his latest projects Papen already took into account the experience of the English engineer Thomas Severi.

In 1698, Severi built the first practically applicable steam engine of a unique design. The inventor called it “the miner’s friend.” According to the inventor, this machine was supposed to be used for many purposes: to drain swamps, to pump water from mines, to supply cities and houses with water, to extinguish fires, to drive mill wheels.

In Severi's machine, the boiler was separated from the working vessel, but the work of steam (which drove water from the vessel up the pipe by direct pressure on its surface) and its condensation occurred in the same vessel. There was no cylinder or piston in the machine. In 1715, Severi's machine was improved by the French physicist J.T. Desagulieu.

In 1711-1712 English inventor, blacksmith Thomas Newcomen, together with John Colley, built the first steam (more precisely, steam-atmospheric) piston engine. The Newcomen engine was also initially intended only for pumping water.

However, even after improvements made to the design of Newcomen's machine by Beighton, Smeaton and, finally, the famous English inventor James Watt in 1769-1774, Newcomen's steam engine retained its narrow purpose - for pumping water.

Steam engines were not used to directly drive any factory or transport mechanisms, although theoretically such a possibility was allowed by a number of inventors.

In those cases when (in the middle of the 18th century) individual attempts were made to use the power of “fire” (steam) to drive factory mechanisms (drilling machines, blowers, etc.), the steam engine (Severi or Newcomen systems) was forced raise water into the tank, and then put this water on the wheel, which set the mechanism in motion.

During the period XVI - first half. XVIII centuries The development of technology occurred in all areas of production. The most important inventions occurred in such basic sectors of the economy as metallurgy, metalworking and textile production. The use of traditional wind and water forces has been improved. Technicians and inventors are close to creating a universal engine that could be used in all industries. All this served as a prerequisite for the industrial revolution. By the 18th century, the conditions for a revolution were ripe in England.

.2 Industrial Revolution

The term “industrial revolution” was first introduced by Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century. This process cannot be called anything other than a revolution, because in a short period of time (1760-1830) a radical change occurred in the method of production.

Although this revolution has all the characteristic features of an explosive process, due to the special combination of circumstances that determined the place and time of its occurrence, it remains at the same time the final phase of a long increase in production that had lasted for the previous seventy years or more. IN economically This revolution was apparently due to the constant expansion of the market for industrial goods, mainly textiles, which in turn was a consequence primarily of the expansion of sea travel and the events of the 17th century associated with colonization.

The combination of economic and political preconditions that led to a radical revolution in production was especially favorable in England. Rather, it was here, rather than in France, that manufacturing industry could develop freely in accordance with demand, for the restrictions created by both feudalism and monarchy were swept away by the revolutions of the 17th century. Another advantage specific to England was, paradoxically, the shortage of timber - this main type of fuel, as well as the main building material of the entire previous civilization. It was this circumstance that caused the expansion of the use of inferior quality, but much cheaper coal as fuel, and later more expensive, but much better material - cast iron - for buildings. The 18th century saw a rapid increase in the production of these materials; the machinery and methods employed in mining and metallurgy were being seriously improved, which was partly due to the new impetus from science which brought about the growth of production associated with such men as Rebuck, Black, Smeaton and Watt. The same was true with transportation methods, in particular with canals.

Textile industry. The first industry that started the Industrial Revolution was the textile industry. This is no coincidence; back in 1733, a flying shuttle for making cloth was invented, which significantly accelerated the production of fabrics. This invention stimulated the work of spinners: in 1738, a machine was created that spun thread without the participation of human hands. In 1764, J. Hargreaves invented the mechanical spinning jenny, and already in 1771, R. Arkwright opened the first spinning mill; the machines in it were driven by a water wheel. By 1780 there were 20 in England, and 10 years later there were already 150 such factories.

The comparatively enormous productivity of these machines led to such widespread use that the capabilities of small streams powering the machines were soon exhausted, and in 1785 the last logical step in the mechanization of the textile industry was taken - the use of Watt's steam engine.

Watt's steam engine. It is one thing to invent something and another thing to be able to use the invention; We have already been convinced of the fairness of this situation more than once. As for the steam engine, there were special difficulties. For, to put it briefly, it was necessary to create an industry with its personnel and equipment. In order to replace the casual mechanics with whom they had been content until then, all kinds of watchmakers, tinsmiths, and mill builders, it was necessary to form a cadre of specialist workers prepared for difficult work that required both muscular strength, intelligence and great steadiness of hand. Instead of the often incorrect and poorly adjusted parts from which the first machines were made and which partly explains their poor functioning, it was necessary to give cylinders of the correct geometric shape; pistons that fit tightly to the walls, but without excessive friction; gears as regular as the wheels of a pocket watch. Advances in metallurgy made this necessary transformation possible. But in order to put it into practice, more capital was needed, a bold determination was needed to risk them in an enterprise that was completely new and with an uncertain future; finally, commercial talent was required, on which practical success depends. Such a precious invention as the steam engine was bound to be a success; it cannot be imagined that it would remain unknown or be ignored. But as we see with many other inventions, success could easily come after the death of the inventor.

In 1765, James Watt built a steam engine, and in 1771 he improved it. The invention of the steam engine had enormous consequences for the development of factory production. It eliminated the dependence of industrial enterprises on river energy and led to the ubiquity of factories. The steam engine required coal to operate; Thanks to this, the coal industry began to develop rapidly. The need for metal stimulated new methods of smelting iron and led to improvements in metallurgy, which also began to work on coal rather than wood.

It was the use of the steam engine as a source of energy for the textile industry that united two initially developing industries - heavy and light industry- and created that modern industrial complex that was to spread from its place of origin, England, throughout the world.

The creation of a universal steam engine was of great importance. Its widespread introduction into all industries began, which marked the beginning of the industrial revolution and the transition from manual manufacturing to factory production.

The industrial revolution is a very complex process. It was the result of the development and close interaction of science and technology. This is the result of the development of the previous three centuries, when there was a gradual accumulation of scientific knowledge, inventions and innovations in technology. This is a change in the attitude of man himself to progress, to everything new. The result of all of the above was the industrial revolution.

Chapter 3. The influence of the development of science and technology on society

European society throughout almost the entire period of early modern times was largely agrarian, with a small layer of ruling elite that controlled most of the property (primarily land). Economic development, that is, the increase in the production of food and other goods that improve the standard of living of the entire population (or at least part of it), all required a more intensive use of resources, especially land, and a more efficient division of labor. Both have become an integral part European history. But since the supply of land was limited, the role of the main factor in development was played (as Adam Smith understood in the 18th century) by the progressive division of labor.

Consequently, in order to comprehend the essence of the economic and social dynamism of Europe, one must clearly understand the history of European manufacturing elites and the professionalization of the bulk of the population. The most important component of this dynamism is technical and technological innovation. Even the Middle Ages were rich in them; over time, the number of these innovations increased so much that they became capable of self-reproduction, which heralded the so-called era of the industrial revolution, or rather a series of industrial revolutions that transformed literally every aspect of physical and social life and determined the most essential features of human thinking and worldview.

.1 The influence of science

The collapse of the medieval picture of the world . Science as an institution was formed in European countries by the 18th century; its influence on society is difficult to overestimate. Its development and separation from the church led to the destruction of the medieval picture of the world.

Medieval Europeans perceived the world as God's masterful creation, as part of the "great chain of being" - and, as such, worthy of study no less than theology or philosophy. Very often, it was theologians who studied the surrounding world and, above all, astronomy, which was part of the compulsory university disciplines. After all, as the Bible teaches, God created the earth and the heavens and everything in them. The heavens, sun, moon and stars in all their splendor and perfection are above us, like God himself. Everything below is earthly and subject to change, corruption and sin. However, at the same time, the Earth remains the center of the universe, since God created man in his own image (which was understood quite literally as the image of a male being), and everything else was for the sake of man.

On this theological basis, the later Middle Ages readily accepted Aristotelian cosmology. According to Aristotle, the Earth is a sphere in the center of the Universe, located below the Moon, that is, the sublunar sphere of imperfect material bodies. Above are the concentric celestial spheres of the Moon, Sun and stars, composed of purer, unearthly matter; they revolve around the Earth. Each part of the universe has a place assigned to it, strives to occupy it and find peace. It was a logically consistent system of the structure of the Universe and the laws of physics operating within it, and it seemed to be in accordance with ordinary ideas and common sense. However, the Aristotelian system revealed a number of fundamental errors that have been criticized from several different points of view.

Copernicus, Galileo and Newton gradually destroyed the existing system. A new picture of the world was created, where everything was explained and calculated. Man's idea of ​​the world has changed.

New philosophy. Modern philosophers, among whom was Descartes (1596-1650), created a new attitude towards the world. Descartes, in the course of his reflections, came to the following conclusion: the world is pure form a mechanism governed by its own physical laws and no longer needs the intervention of the Creator God or other supernatural beings. Even animals that do not have rational consciousness, according to Descartes, are a kind of automata. He himself says: “... these concepts showed me that it is possible to achieve knowledge that is very useful in life, and instead of that speculative philosophy that is taught in schools, you can find practical philosophy, with the help of which, knowing the power and effect of fire, water , air, stars, heavens and all other bodies surrounding us, as clearly as we know the various occupations of our artisans, we could in exactly the same way use them for all possible uses and thereby become masters and masters of nature. And this is desirable not only in the interests of inventing an infinite number of devices, thanks to which we would enjoy the fruits of the earth and all the amenities without any difficulty, but most importantly - for maintaining health...”

This marked the beginning of a new relationship between man and nature. He began to perceive nature and the world in a new way. He began to perceive himself as the master of nature.

.2 Impact of technology

The main purpose of technology is to make human work easier. During the 16th-18th centuries, technology has come a long way from manual manufacturing to factory mass production. In European countries, the creation of factories led to the formation of a new working class. However, despite the apparent ease of labor (new machines made it possible to increase production many times over), the exploitation of workers was no less than before.

New technology allowed man to create an industrial complex that produced mass products for the population.

The standard of living gradually increased, if not in all segments of the population, then at least in part of it. Well-being, or even just a life provided with food, clothing and housing, was still the privilege of a minority; however, the number of wealthy people was growing.

In England, at the end of the 18th century, as a result of the industrial revolution, the first consumer society began to form. A large and growing class appeared on the scene, including skilled artisans and wealthy farmers, prosperous shopkeepers and successful merchants, local clergy, rural lawyers and doctors. All of them had one or another means beyond the usual consumer level. Naturally, their needs were met by a counter offer, and were increasingly stimulated by those who offered various items luxury and entertainment. Store windows became increasingly varied and fashionable as cheap fabrics made it possible to imitate the fashions of the upper classes of society.

All this testifies to the development of production in this country, because England is the country of the first industrial revolution.

The influence of technology and the industrial revolution is difficult to overestimate; a radical change was made in the very structure of society. In England, the urban population and new centers of factory production grew rapidly. The number of people employed in industry was also constantly growing.

Conclusion

Having studied in the first chapter the development of science in early modern times, we see that science has come a long way. At the first stage of the scientific revolution (late XV - 1540), science began the path to the destruction of the medieval picture of the world. Here it is difficult to overestimate the influence of Nicolaus Copernicus, who put forward his theory of the rotation of planets around the Sun.

At the second stage (1540-1650) of the scientific revolution there was a triumph of the new method scientific knowledge- experimental. The pioneer of the new method was Galileo Galilei, who used the experimental method in his research. He was also the first to calculate and confirm the Copernican theory. The theory of blood circulation was put forward, anatomy was developing.

The third stage (1650-1700) was the triumph of new science. The first scientific societies were formed in England and France. The most important discovery of the period was the discovery of universal gravitation by Isaac Newton. There was a final breakdown of the medieval picture of the world.

The second chapter covered the development of technology in early modern times and the industrial revolution. The development of technology was a consequence of the development of science; the technology of the Middle Ages was improved (mill, water wheel). The production technique also changed from the manufacturing method to the factory method. The industrial revolution was a consequence of the development of technology and science; it was expressed in the replacement of manual labor with machine labor.

The impact of the development of science and technology on society has been enormous. The level and quality of life grew. The population of cities grew as new centers of industrial production. In England this began to lead to a consumer society.

Bibliography

1.Koenigsberger G.G. Early Modern Europe, 1500-1789 / Trans. from English Afterword by D.E. Kharitonovich. - M.: Publishing house "Ves Mir", 2006. - 320 p.

2.Virginsky V.S. Essays on the history of science and technology of the 16th-19th centuries - Moscow: Education, 1984. - 287 p.

3.F. Ilek. World inventions in dates: A chronological overview of significant events in the history of inventions in the field of technology. / Per. from Czech with additions by G.V. Matveeva; Ed. YES. Soboleva. - Uzbekistan, 1982. - 271 p.

.John Bernal. Science in the history of society - Moscow: Foreign Literature Publishing House, 1956. - 738 p.

5.Big Soviet encyclopedia in 30 volumes (#"justify">. The World History. Encyclopedia (#"justify">. Zvorykin A.A., Osmova N.I., Chernyshev V.I., Shukhardin S.V. History of technology - Moscow: Socekgiz, 1962 - 772 p.

.Mantu P. Industrial revolution of the 18th century in England - Moscow: state socio-economic publishing house, 1937 - 440 p.

.Yurovskaya E.E., Krivoguz I.M. New history of the countries of Europe and America. Volume 1 - M.: Higher. school, 1998. - 415 p.

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Modern times (or new history) are a period in human history located between the Middle Ages and Modern times.

The concept of “new time” was accepted by historians and established in scientific usage, but its meaning largely remains conditional - not all nations entered this period at the same time. In this period of time, a new civilization, a new system of relations is emerging.

Great geographical discoveries

One of the most important changes was the expansion of the cultural territory known to Europeans. In a very short period (late 15th - early 16th centuries), European sailors circumnavigated Africa, paved the sea route to India, discovered a new continent - America, and circumnavigated the world. It is noteworthy that it was Columbus’s discovery of America (in 1942) that is considered to be the symbolic end of the Middle Ages.

These journeys would have become impossible without prerequisites, the main of which are: the invention of the compass and the creation of a ship capable of covering vast distances on the open sea. Interestingly, the first of these inventions was made long before the advent of modern times.

Art

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - Italian painter, architect, scientist and engineer. He left behind numerous discoveries, projects, and experimental research in the fields of mathematics, natural sciences, and mechanics. He left about 7,000 sheets of manuscript describing experiments in the knowledge of nature. Leonardo da Vinci completed the famous portrait of Monet Lisa (“La Gioconda”), in which he embodied the humanistic ideal of female beauty.

Rafael Santi is an Italian painter and architect. One of the greatest masters of the Great Renaissance. His paintings are imbued with grace and soft lyricism. He designed St. Peter's Cathedral and Rome, painted rooms in the Vatican.

Technology and production

The development of technology at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries had an even greater impact on people’s daily lives. One of the most important innovations of that time was printing (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten ones). Johannes Gutenberg is considered the inventor of printing. Around 1440 he built his printing press.

The craft production of the Middle Ages is being replaced by the manufacturing type of production. In manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly. In manufactories, craftsmen worked not for themselves, but for the owner of the manufactory.

Over the course of two centuries, many inventions have appeared. The development of mining and metallurgy played an important role. Metal mining and processing have reached perfection. Inventors already saw metal as a material for the embodiment of their creative thoughts.

Science did not stand still. Modern times are the dawn of physics and chemistry, which dominated all other branches of human knowledge. Newton's laws of mechanics were known, electricity was discovered, which paved the way for the development of electrodynamics. Outstanding achievements have also been made in optics.

Finally, the steam engine and the internal combustion engine were invented, which contributed to the development of transportation.

At the end of the New Age period, radio, telegraph, telephone were invented, X-rays were discovered, people were able to travel on self-propelled carriages and rise into the air.

With the invention of internal combustion engines, the extraction of oil and other minerals began to play a huge role.

The beginning of the 20th century marked itself as the heyday of electronics. Electricity was a brilliant discovery of mankind and a new stage that was supposed to replace the prevailing mechanics in modern times.

EpochModern time - a period in the history of mankind, located
between the Middle Ages and Modern times.
During this period of time the following occurs:
the emergence of a new civilization, a new system of relations
Europeanization of the world, the “European miracle”
expansion of European civilization to other areas of the world
development of capitalist formation
the process of changing socio-economic formations,
the most important factor of which is the class struggle.

Human worldview

Inventions of new times

The Gutenberg Bible, produced by Johannes Gutenberg in the first half of the 1450s

Technology

Technology

Spread of printing

The Importance of Typography

10. Woodcut

11. Consequences of technological progress

12. Development of mining and metallurgy

13. Inventions of the New Age

Inventions and discoveries of the beginning of modern times

Gutenberg shows the first printed book to the monks who copied the manuscripts by hand

Great discoveries and great inventions. - Many discoveries during the 15th century. and at the beginning of the 16th century they accelerated the fall of the Middle Ages and the onset of modern times.

During this time, a number of inventions were distributed and introduced into general use, such as: gunpowder, compass, oil painting, engraving, paper and printing; Around the same time, great navigators discovered the New World and new way by sea to the eastern countries of the Old World.

The most famous of these inventors were: the German Gutenberg, who invented printing, and the Genoese Christopher Columbus, who discovered America; we must honor them as well as our greatest compatriots, for their inventions and discoveries have rendered us the same services as all other people, they belong to all mankind and constitute its pride and glory.

Gunpowder and firearms: the consequences of this invention. - Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese, but they only used it for fireworks. The Arabs used it in war and through them it became known to Europeans.

The first cannons were made of stone, very heavy and made more noise than they did harm to the enemy: these were the cannons used by the British at Crecy in 1346.

Around the same time, firearms with a hand-held arcal appeared, inside of which, with the help of a mechanism, the lit wick came into contact with gunpowder.

In the 15th century, these weapons were improved; they began to make guns from bronze, install them on wheels and transport them with horses. Then they began to put a stone in the arquebus instead of a wick, and thus a musket appeared.

From then on, it was easier to destroy castles that at that time belonged to the nobility. From now on, knights, despite their heavy armor, were not protected from the blows of cannonballs and bullets. At that time, knights fought only on horseback; The cavalry represented the noble army par excellence.

But only the kings, thanks to the taxes levied on the lower classes of the population, had enough funds to maintain a large army of infantry and have many cannons; In this way it was not difficult for them to put an end to the feudal lords.

The invention of gunpowder and firearms everywhere hastened the fall of feudalism and the triumph of absolute monarchy.

Compass. - In the 14th century, Europeans borrowed the use of a compass from the Arabs. This is a magnetized needle, the tip of which always faces north; until that time: sailors did not dare move away from the shores, fearing to get lost on the open sea. From now on they can set sail on the open sea, because the compass always points north and in this way the other three main points can be determined. The compass contributed to great maritime discoveries.

Opening of the route around the Cape of Good Hope. - Up to the fifteenth table. Europeans knew only Europe and the African and Asian shores of the Mediterranean Sea; they knew, of course, that Asia extended far to the east, but their ideas about Asia were very vague. Southern and central parts of Africa were completely unknown; the existence of Oceania and America was not even suspected.

In the XV table. Portuguese sailors moved along the western coast of Africa; one after another they discovered the island of Madera, the Canary Islands and the shores of the Gulf of Guinea. In 1484, one of them reached the Cape of Good Hope.

In 1497, Vasco de Gama rounded this cape and entered the Indian Ocean; sailing along the eastern coast of Africa, he came to India. Thus a sea route was found to Far East. The Portuguese set up trading posts on the shores of Africa and in India to trade with the natives, from whom they bought spices and silks and resold them in Europe.

Discovery of America: the first voyage around the world. - Christopher Columbus made an even more important discovery: he discovered a new world - America.

Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy. In that era, the Genoese were the first navigators. Having married the daughter of a merchant captain, who left him his nautical maps and all the nautical instruments as an inheritance, he himself became a sailor. Reading the works of the ancients, he came to the idea that the earth was round and therefore, heading west by sea, it should land on the shores of India. It was necessary to convince one of the reigning persons of this idea in order to receive ships and all the means to carry out their intentions. Chr. Columbus addressed the king of Portugal and the king of England. These bold proposals were met with ridicule at the royal courts, and the great man was treated as a fool or a madman. Unfortunately, the ignorant usually look down on people who bring new truth to the world. Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, received him favorably and commissioned a council of learned theologians to consider his project; the latter announced Chr. Columba a fool and a heretic: and in fact in none of holy books There is no mention of the earth being spherical. However, one monk, the queen’s confessor, achieved that three undecked ships and 90 sailors were placed at his disposal. Having passed the Canary Islands, the travelers lost sight of the land, sailing all the time to the west in an unknown vast space. Two, three weeks pass, and finally a month; nothing is visible except sky and water.

The crew is in fear, a rebellion breaks out, which Columbus vigorously suppresses; The scientist’s deep faith does not leave him for a minute. Finally, on the thirty-third day of the voyage, the sentry on the mast notices land.

The crew landed on a wonderful island, which was named San Salvador (1492). Columbus returned to Spain in order to announce his discovery at court; he was showered with honors. He made several more voyages, during which he discovered many other islands and the shores of a large continent, believing that he had arrived in the East Indies, but by a shorter route than Vasco de Gama; in reality these were the shores of America, located in the middle of the ocean, between the East Indies and Europe.

After his last voyage, Columbus was received coldly because he did not bring with him gold bars from the newly discovered country, which, according to the sailors, was rich in gold. Envious courtiers accused him of treason against their master. Columbus was imprisoned, from where he was released only by the grace of Isabella. He soon died and died a poor man.

Another traveler who was in service in Spain, the Portuguese Magellan, proved that Columbus was not mistaken when he claimed that the earth was round. His ship left Spain (1519), sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, passed the southern tip of America, crossed the Great Ocean and, heading west throughout the voyage, three years later returned through the Indian Ocean past the Cape of Good Hope to the same place from which it left . But Magellan himself was killed during his journey by the savages of one small oceanic island on which he landed.

Spanish conquerors.- The natives of America were little civilized, few in number and poorly armed; their country abounded in rich gold and silver mines, especially Mexico and Peru.

Crowds of greedy Spanish adventurers rushed after rich booty, committing outrageous cruelties on the weak natives, huge numbers of whom were exterminated by them. The most daring and bloodthirsty of them, the famous Ferdinand de Cortes conquered Mexico for his overlord, the Spanish king.

The influence of great sea discoveries.- These maritime discoveries profoundly changed living conditions in Europe.

The newly discovered lands introduced Europeans to the use of many hitherto unknown plants, such as: tobacco, cocoa, from which chocolate is made, quinine, maize, and later potatoes and dyewood. In addition, coffee, sugar cane and cotton were brought to America from Africa and Asia; all these plants took root perfectly there, especially in the Antilles, and little by little they ceased to be a luxury in Europe. Moreover, all these discoveries greatly enriched and expanded maritime trade; until then, all maritime trade was concentrated in large cities located along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea; from now on, little by little, ocean ports begin to flourish: London, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Le Havre, Nantes, Bordeaux overshadow Genoa and Venice.

Finally, and gems, which until that time were rare in Spain, appeared in it in relative abundance; gold and silver exported from Peru and Mexico enriched Spain with specie, which, once in circulation, fueled trade and industry; Wealth and luxury spilled over into the wealthy classes, and from among them a bourgeois class soon emerged, taking the greatest advantage of the successes of trade and industry.

Oil painting, engraving.- Until now, they painted with water paints on wood or on walls covered with fresh lime; this last method is called fresco. But over time, wood cracks and is worn away by worms; dampness destroys frescoes; oil paints were invented in the 15th century; This invention made it possible to keep colors indestructible.

Around the same time, wood engraving and a little later metal engraving were invented; lines were drawn on a wooden or metal board in relief or indentations, which were covered with thick ink; thus drawn on the board, it was imprinted on a sheet of paper, when the board was pressed onto the paper prepared for such use; engraving made it possible to reproduce at low cost an infinite number of drawings and prints.

It is clear how much these two inventions should have contributed to the development and prosperity of the fine arts.

Paper and printing.- Once upon a time there were only manuscripts, i.e. handwritten books, which were most often written on parchment. The high cost of parchment and the slow work of the copyist increased the price of books, and they were available only to the rich.

In the 14th century, linen came into general use, and someone had the idea to use old unusable linen, turning it into dough, which, with a certain processing, turned into paper; Thanks to this cheap production method, paper soon replaced parchment.

Somewhat later they learned to do without a copyist. In the first years of the 15th table. already engraved entire pages on wooden boards that could be reproduced in large quantities copies, placing sheets of parchment on boards; but this method could only reproduce the same page. Around 1436, one worker from Mainz, Gutenberg, came up with a very simple but ingenious idea of ​​​​cutting individual, movable letters from wood: by fastening the letters in the appropriate way and composing entire pages from them, he could reproduce the manuscript in several copies, then disassemble these letters and, having laid them out in a new order, compose the following pages. And so printing was invented. Together with another worker, he subsequently replaced the wooden letters with letters cut from lead. Finally, one of the workers found a way to cast metal letters by pouring molten metal into a mold, thus making thousands of them using the same mold, instead of slowly cutting out one letter at a time.

Gutenberg, like many other great inventors, died in poverty.

The mental revolution brought about by printing. - With the discovery of printing, a great force was created that excited the whole world; from then on, with the cheapening of books, various knowledge, accessible only to a small number of scientists and literate people, began to spread more and more among the masses; the works of scientists, poets, artists, the creativity of a blossoming genius in one part of the globe were communicated to the other end of it, giving rise to new great creations: from then on, every new idea had the full opportunity to spread; from now on it was no longer possible to stifle open truth. Printing has become a formidable weapon in the struggle against all power, against all traditions of the past. First of all, it spread the light of the Italian Renaissance throughout Europe and contributed to the emergence of a great religious revolution: the Reformation.