How does the voice work? Singer physiology and vocal cords. Determining your voice type What length and thickness of your vocal cords are

Voice development always requires correct diagnosis of its type. Making a correct diagnosis - correctly determining the type of voice at the beginning of training is one of the conditions for its correct formation. In shaping the character of the voice, not only constitutional factors play a role, but also adaptations, that is, acquired skills and habits.

When a novice singer, copying some favorite artist, sings with a voice that is unusual for him, “bass,” “tenor,” etc., then most often this is easy to determine by ear and correct. In this case, the natural, natural character of the voice is clearly revealed. However, there are cases when the voice sounds natural, relaxed, basically correct, and yet its character remains intermediate, unidentified.

Determining your voice type should be based on a number of characteristics. These include such voice qualities as timbre, range, location of transitional notes and primary tones, the ability to maintain tessitura, as well as constitutional characteristics, in particular the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the vocal apparatus.

Timbre and range are usually revealed already during admissions tests, but neither one nor the other sign separately can tell us with certainty what kind of voice a student has. It happens that the timbre speaks for one type of voice, but the range does not correspond to it. The timbre of the voice is easily deformed by imitation or incorrect singing and can deceive even a picky ear.

There are also voices with a very wide range, capturing notes uncharacteristic for this type of voice. On the other hand, there are also those who have a short range that does not reach the tones necessary for singing in a given voice character. The range of such singers is most often shortened at one end, that is, either several notes are missing in its upper segment or in the lower one. It is rare that it is narrowed at both ends.

We obtain additional data to help classify the voice from the analysis of transition notes. Different types of voices have transition sounds at different pitches. This is what the teacher uses to more accurately diagnose the type of voice.

Typical transition notes, also varying among different singers:

Tenor - E-F-F-sharp - G of the first octave.
Baritone - D-E-flat - E of the first octave.
Bass - A-B - B-flat small C-C-sharp of the first octave.
Soprano - E-F-F-sharp of the first octave.
Mezzo-soprano C-D-D-sharp of the first octave.

For women, this typical register transition is at the lower end of the range, and for men, it is at the upper end.

In addition to this feature, so-called primary sounds, or sounds that sound most easily and naturally for a given singer, can help in determining the type of voice. As has been established by practice, they are most often found in the middle part of the voice, i.e. for a tenor in the region up to the first octave, for a baritone - in the region of A small, for a bass - F of a small octave. Accordingly, women's voices too.

The correct solution to the question of voice type can also be determined by the singer’s ability to withstand the tessitura characteristic of a given voice type. Tessitura (from the word tissu - fabric) is understood as the average pitch load on the voice present in a given work.

Thus, the concept of tessitura reflects that part of the range where the voice most often should remain when singing a given piece. If a voice, close in character to a tenor, stubbornly does not hold the tenor tessitura, then one can doubt the correctness of the chosen manner of voicing and indicates that this voice is probably a baritone.

Among the signs that help determine the type of voice, there are also anatomical and physiological ones. It has long been noted that different types of voices correspond to different lengths of the vocal cords. It should also be remembered that the vocal cords can be differently organized in work and therefore used to form different timbres. This is clearly evidenced by cases of changes in voice type among professional singers. The same vocal cords can be used for singing by different types of voices, depending on their adaptation. However, their typical length, and with the experienced eye of a phoniatrist, an approximate idea of ​​the thickness of the vocal cords, can provide guidance regarding the type of voice.

Phoniatricians have long established a relationship between the length of the vocal cords and the type of voice. According to this criterion, the shorter the ligaments, the higher the voice. For example, a soprano has a length of vocal cords of 10-12 mm, a mezzo-soprano has a length of cords of 12-14 mm, and a contralto has a length of 13-15 mm. The length of the vocal cords of male singing voices is: tenor 15-17 mm, baritone 18-21 mm, bass 23-25 ​​mm.

In a number of cases, already when a singer appears on stage, one can unmistakably judge the type of his voice. That is why, for example, there are terms such as “tenor” or “bass” appearance. However, the connection between voice type and the constitutional characteristics of the body cannot be considered a developed area of ​​knowledge and cannot be relied on when determining voice type.

Many vocal teachers advise feeling the sound in the stomach, on the diaphragm, on the tip of the nose, in the forehead, in the back of the head... Anywhere, but not in the throat, where the vocal cords are located. But this is a key point in the design of the voice apparatus! The voice is born precisely on the cords.

If you want to learn how to sing correctly, this article will help you better understand the structure of the vocal apparatus!

Physiology of the voice - vibrations of the vocal cords.

Let's remember from the physics course: sound is a wave, isn't it? Accordingly, the voice is a sound wave. Where do sound waves come from? They appear when a “body” oscillates in space, shakes the air and forms an air wave.

Like any wave, sound has movement. The voice must be sent forward even when you sing quietly. Otherwise, the sound wave will quickly fade away, the voice will sound sluggish or tense.

If you study vocals, but still don’t know what the vocal cords look like and where they are, the video below is a must-watch

The structure of the vocal apparatus: how the cords and voice work.

  • We take a breath, the lungs increase in volume.
  • As you exhale, the ribs gradually narrow and...
  • The air rises through the trachea and bronchi, to the pharynx, where the vocal cords are attached.
  • When a stream of air hits the vocal cords, they begin to vibrate: closing and opening hundreds of times per second and creating vibrations in the throat.
  • Sound waves from the vibration of the vocal cords spread throughout the body, like circles on water.
  • And then we direct the born sound wave into the resonators with our attention - into the nose, mouth, we feel vibrations in the head, chest, face, back of the head...
  • We formulate the resonating wave of sound into vowels and consonants with the tongue and lips, using diction and articulation.
  • We fill our mouth with sound, release it with an open smile forward and... sing!

Errors in the functioning of the vocal cords.

The structure of the voice apparatus consists of all the stages described above. If there are problems with at least one of them, you will not get a free and beautiful voice. More often, errors occur at the first or second stage, when we... The ligaments should not fight the exhalation! The smoother the stream of air that you exhale, the smoother the vibrations of the vocal cords, the voice sounds more uniform and beautiful.

If the breath flow is not controlled, then an uncontrolled stream of air comes out in a large wave at a time. The vocal cords are unable to cope with such pressure. There will be a non-closure of the ligaments. The sound will be sluggish and hoarse. After all, the tighter the ligaments are closed, the louder the voice!

And vice versa, if you hold your exhalation and, hypertonicity of the diaphragm (clamping) occurs. The air will practically not flow to the ligaments, and they will have to vibrate on their own, pressing against each other through force. And thus rub the calluses. They are nodules on the vocal cords. At the same time, during singing, painful sensations arise - burning, soreness, friction. If you work in this mode constantly, the vocal cords lose elasticity.

Of course, there is such a thing as “belting,” or vocal screaming, and it is done with minimal exhalation. The ligaments close very tightly for a loud sound. But you can sing correctly using this technique only after understanding the anatomy and physiology of the voice.

The vocal cords and larynx are your first vocal instruments. Understanding how the voice and vocal apparatus works gives you limitless possibilities - you can change colors: sing with a more powerful sound, now ringing and flying, now tenderly and reverently, now with a metallic ringing tint, now in a half-whisper that touches the audience's soul... .

About 15 muscles of the larynx are responsible for the movement of the ligaments! And in the structure of the larynx there are also various cartilages that ensure proper closure of the ligaments.

This is interesting! Something from the physiology of the voice.

The human voice is unique:

  • People's voices sound different because each of us has different lengths and thicknesses of our vocal cords. Men have longer ligaments, and therefore their voice sounds lower.
  • The vibrations of the vocal cords of singers range from approximately 100 Hz (low male voice) to 2000 Hz (high female voice).
  • The length of the vocal cords depends on the size of a person's larynx (the longer the larynx, the longer the cords), so men have longer and thicker cords, unlike women with a short larynx.
  • The ligaments can stretch and shorten, become thicker or thinner, close only at the edges or along the entire length due to the special structure of the vocal muscles, which are both longitudinal and oblique - hence the different color of the sound and the strength of the voice.
  • In conversation we use only one tenth of the range, that is, the vocal cords are capable of stretching ten times more in each person, and the voice sounds ten times higher than a spoken one, this is inherent in nature itself! If you realize this, it will be easier.
  • Exercises for vocalists make the vocal cords elastic and make them stretch better. With elasticity of ligaments voice range increases.
  • Some resonators cannot be called resonators because they are not voids. For example, the chest, the back of the head, the forehead - they do not resonate, but vibrate from the sound wave of the voice.
  • With the help of sound resonance you can break a glass, and the Guinness Book of Records describes a case in which a schoolgirl shouted above the noise of a taking off plane using the power of her voice.
  • Animals also have vocal cords, but only humans can control their voice.
  • Sound does not travel in a vacuum, so it is important to create the movement of exhalation and inhalation to produce sound as the vocal cords vibrate.

What length and thickness are your vocal cords?

It is useful for every aspiring vocalist to go to an appointment with a phoniatrist (a doctor who treats the voice). I send students to him before starting their first vocal lessons.

The phoniatrist will ask you to sing and use technology to show you how your voice works and how your vocal cords work during the singing process. He will tell you how long and thick the vocal cords are, how well they close, what subglottic pressure they have. All this is useful to know in order to better use your vocal apparatus. Professional singers go to the phoniator once or twice a year for preventive maintenance - to make sure that everything is fine with their ligaments.

We are accustomed to using our vocal cords in life; we do not notice their vibrations. And they work even when we are silent. It’s not for nothing that they say that the vocal apparatus imitates all the sounds around us. For example, a rattling tram passing by, people screaming on the street, or the bass from the speakers at a rock concert. Therefore, listening to quality music has a positive effect on your vocal cords and improves your vocal level. And silent exercises for vocalists (there are some) train your voice.

Vocal teachers do not like to explain the physiology of the voice to their students, but in vain! They are afraid that the student, having heard how to close the vocal cords correctly, will begin to sing “on the cords”, the voice will become tight.

In the next article, we will look at a technique that helps you easily control your voice and hit high notes just because your vocal cords are working correctly.

The most ancient musical instrument is the voice. And ligaments are its main component. Always feel your vocal cords working when singing! Study your voice, be more curious - we ourselves do not know our capabilities. And hone your vocal skills every day.

Subscribe to the O VOCALE blog news, where a small life hack will soon appear on how to feel if you are closing your vocal cords correctly when breathing.

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In 1741 Ferrein(Ferrein) was the first to conduct experiments on the dead larynx, which were later carefully checked by I. Muller. It turned out that only “in general” the number of vibrations of the vocal cords obeys the laws of string vibration, according to which doubling the number of vibrations of any string requires squaring the tension weight.

Muller cut vocal cord length, pressing them in different places with tweezers both under tension and in various relaxed states. It turned out that depending on the tension of the ligaments, either low or high sounds are obtained when both long and short ligaments function.

Great importance is attached vocal muscle activity(m. thyreo-arythenoideus s. vocalis). On a living larynx, the pitch of sound depends not on lengthening, but on contraction of the vocal cords, which is ensured by the activity of m. vocalis (V.S. Kantorovich). Shorter and more elastic vocal cords, other things being equal, provide an increase in sound, which corresponds to the physical concepts of a vibrating string. At the same time, thickening of the vocal cords leads to a decrease in sound.

When as you rise pitch tension of the vocal muscles(without thickening of the ligaments) becomes insufficient, the thyroid-cricoid muscles, which stretch (but not lengthen) the vocal cords, contribute to the increase in tone (M. I. Fomichev).

Vocal cord vibrations can be carried out not along their entire length, but only on a certain segment, due to which an increase in tone is achieved. This occurs due to contraction of the oblique and transverse fibers of the vocalis muscle and possibly the oblique and transverse muscles, the arytenoid cartilages, and the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle.

M. I. Fomichev believes that the position of the epiglottis has some influence on the pitch. At very low tones, the epiglottis is usually very depressed, and the vocal cords become vast during laryngoscopy. As you know, closed pipes produce a lower sound than open ones.

In singing, there is a distinction between chest and falsetto. sounds. Muzehold was able to use laryngostroboscopic photographs to trace individual slow movements of the vocal cords.

In chest voice, the cords appear as two thick tension rollers, tightly compressed with each other. The sound here is rich in overtones and their amplitude slowly decreases with increasing height, which gives the timbre a fullness character. The presence of chest resonance in the chest register is disputed by most researchers.

In falsetto, the ligaments appear flattened, strongly stretched and a gap is formed between them. Only the free edges of the true ligaments vibrate, moving upward and laterally. There is no complete interruption of air during falsetto. As the falsetto tone increases, the glottis shortens due to the complete closure of the ligaments in the posterior regions.
With a mixed sound, the ligaments vibrate approximately half their width.

Most of Husson's opponents conducted experiments on animals (dogs, cats). The difficulty here, however, is that the results of not every experiment can be mechanically transferred to humans, since the human vocal muscle has a number of distinctive properties. Husson refers to these distinctive properties when putting forward his theory. Similar experiments on humans can be carried out only in exceptional cases, during forced surgery on the larynx, and even then with the consent of the patient.

Nevertheless, there is still reason to believe that the regulation of the frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords in humans is a rather complex process, in which, under all conditions, the role of myelastic forces and air pressure can hardly be ignored. Even in the last century, the German physiologist I. Müller was able to show that the pitch of the tone emitted by the isolated human larynx can be varied in fundamentally two ways: by the tension force of the vocal cords at constant air pressure and by the force of subglottic air pressure with constant tension of the ligaments. Why couldn’t these simplest mechanisms be used by nature to regulate the pitch of the fundamental tone of the voice in a living organism? To clarify the question of the role of air pressure, the following experiments were carried out (Medvedev, Morozov, 1966).

While the singer was playing a note, the air pressure in his mouth was artificially changed using a special device. The magnitude of this pressure and the vibration frequency of the vocal cords were recorded on an oscilloscope. As can be seen in the oscillogram, despite the fact that the singer was instructed to keep the pitch of the note unchanged, the fundamental tone of his voice still involuntarily increased or decreased depending on the pressure in the oral cavity (Fig. 17). An artificial increase in pressure in the mouth led to a decrease in the frequency of the fundamental tone until the vibrations of the vocal cords completely stopped, and a decrease in pressure again led to an increase in the fundamental pitch of the voice. At the same time, it was found that the less experienced the singer, the more his fundamental frequency “walks” when the pressure in the oral cavity is artificially changed.

Finally, in another series of experiments the condition of complete naturalness of phonation was not violated at all. The singers were given the task of periodically changing the sweat of a certain height when singing, that is, reducing or increasing the force of subglottic pressure, while trying not to change the pitch of the fundamental tone of the voice at all. The strength of the voice also changed from forte to piano. Both the strength of the voice and the frequency of vibration of the singer's vocal cords were continuously recorded and measured with special devices. The graph (Fig. 18) clearly shows that with a wave-like change in voice strength, and therefore pressure in the lungs, the vibration frequency of the vocal cords also involuntarily changes (albeit within small limits), increasing slightly with increasing voice strength and decreasing with decreasing subglottic pressure.

This fact is well known from everyday experience: in ordinary conversational speech, don’t we raise the main tone of our voice when we want to shout louder and, conversely, don’t we lower the volume when talking quietly? It’s not for nothing that a person who begins to speak loudly is told: “Don’t raise your voice!”


Rice. 18. Changes in the vibration frequency of a person’s vocal cords when the strength of the voice changes. The solid line is the fundamental frequency; intermittent - voice strength In conventional units; arrow - direction of voice amplification and increase in fundamental frequency; horizontally - time from the beginning of phonation (in seconds).

It goes without saying that if the frequency of vibration of a person’s vocal cords were completely independent of pressure (more precisely, on the difference between subglottic and supraglottic pressure), then we would not have detected such changes in the vibrations of the ligaments. However, they are detected, and this can be seen in many other examples.

If a singer is given the task of singing all the notes - from the lowest to the highest - with a voice of equal strength, for example forte, then you can guarantee that not a single singer can withstand the same strength of voice on all notes. He will sing the lowest notes much more quietly than the highest ones (see, for example, Fig. 6). Numerous studies show that the involuntary increase in vocal strength as the pitch rises is a pattern among singers. Thus, in order to sing low sweats, the singer must necessarily reduce the pressure in the lungs. At the same time, increasing subglottic pressure helps the singer reach high notes. True, a singer can, within certain limits, change the strength of his voice without changing its height, but these limits are still limited: within a wide range, the height of the voice depends on strength, just as strength depends on height.

The above experiments and observations, although they are not a direct contradiction to Husson’s main idea about the central neuromotor nature of the vibration of the human vocal cords, still force one to be cautious about his statements about the complete independence of the frequency of oscillation of the vocal cords from the underlying air pressure.

The voice apparatus is a living acoustic device, and, therefore, in addition to physiological laws, it also obeys all the laws of acoustics and mechanics. And turning to musical acoustics, we see that the pitch of musical instruments is regulated by simply tensioning the string or varying the size of the vibrating reeds (Konstantinov, 1939). The pitch of some whistles (f0) is determined by the relationship f0=kvр, where p is the amount of air pressure, k is the proportionality coefficient. There is evidence that the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords of the human larynx (all other things being equal) is also determined by this very ratio (Fant, 1964). Further, we see that the shorter the singer's vocal cords, the higher his voice. In addition, basses have vocal cords two and a half times thicker than sopranos. According to research by L.B. Dmitriev, the size of the resonators for singers with low voices is naturally larger than for singers with high voices (Dmitriev, 1955). Isn't this whole mechanic related to the pitch of the voice? This is certainly true!

The facts say that the acoustic-mechanical laws governing the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords undoubtedly take place in a living organism, and it would hardly be fair to discount them. Even if we are extremely friendly towards Husson and fully recognize the existence of a “third function” of the human vocal cords, there is still no reason to think that this “third function” is the only monopoly regulator of the frequency of vibrations of the cords. The human vocal apparatus is an extremely complex device and, like any complex apparatus, it apparently has not one, but several regulatory mechanisms, to a certain extent independent of each other, controlled by the central nervous system. This ensures amazing accuracy and reliability of the voice apparatus in a wide variety of conditions.

These arguments, however, in no way diminish the role of the central nervous system in regulating the vocal cords. On the contrary: it must be emphasized that the regulation of all myelastic and mechanical properties of the vocal cords (the degree of their tension, closure, density, etc.) and aerodynamic conditions in the larynx (regulation of subglottic pressure, etc.) is entirely carried out by the central nervous system. The nervous system is in charge of all this acoustics and mechanics. The central nervous system is helped in this complex process by numerous sensitive formations (proprioceptors and baroreceptors), sending information to the nerve centers about the degree of contraction of various muscles of the larynx and the entire respiratory tract, as well as about the degree of air pressure in the lungs and trachea. The role of these internal sensitive formations (receptors) in the regulation of vocal function is well identified in the works of Soviet researchers V. N. Chernigovsky (1960), M. S. Gracheva (1963), M. V. Sergievsky (1950), V. I. Medvedev with co-authors (1959), as well as in the experiments of Husson himself.

The research of R. Husson and his colleagues undoubtedly has great progressive significance in the development of the physiology of phonation: they attract the attention of scientists to this important problem, stimulate new searches and already today explain what is difficult to explain from old positions. Undoubtedly, a large scientific debate around a new theory is also useful, since every day it brings us more and more new knowledge. Truth is born in dispute.

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The human vocal apparatus consists of the respiratory organs, the larynx with vocal cords and air resonator cavities (nasal, oral, nasopharynx and pharynx). The resonator sizes are larger for low voices than for high voices.

The larynx is formed by three unpaired cartilages: cricoid, thyroid (Adam's apple) and epiglottis - and three paired ones: arytenoid, Santorini and Wriesberg. The main cartilage is the cricoid. At the back of it, two arytenoid cartilages of a triangular shape are located symmetrically on the right and left sides, movably articulated with its posterior part. When the muscles contracting, pulling back the outer ends of the arytenoid cartilages, and the intercartilaginous muscles relax, the arytenoid cartilages rotate around their axis and the glottis opens wide, necessary for inhalation. With the contraction of the muscles located between the arytenoid cartilages and the tension of the vocal cords, the glottis takes the form of two tightly stretched parallel muscle ridges, which occurs when protecting the respiratory tract from foreign bodies. In humans, the true vocal cords are located in the sagittal direction from the internal angle of the junction of the plates of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The true vocal cords include the internal thyroarytenoid muscles.

Lengthening of the ligaments occurs when the muscles located in front between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages contract. In this case, the thyroid cartilage, rotating on the joints located in the posterior part of the cricoid cartilage, tilts forward; its upper part, to which the ligaments are attached, extends from the posterior wall of the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, which is accompanied by an increase in the length of the ligaments. There is a certain relationship between the degree of tension of the vocal cords and the pressure of air coming from the lungs. The more the ligaments close, the more pressure the air leaving the lungs puts on them. Consequently, the main role in regulating the voice belongs to the degree of tension of the muscles of the vocal cords and the sufficient amount of air pressure under them created by the respiratory system. As a rule, the ability to speak is preceded by a deep breath.

Innervation of the larynx. In an adult, the mucous membrane of the larynx contains numerous receptors located where the mucous membrane directly covers the cartilage. There are three reflexogenic zones: 1) around the entrance to the larynx, on the posterior surface of the epiglottis and along the edges of the aryepiglottic folds. 2) on the anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilages and in the space between their vocal processes, 3) on the inner surface of the cricoid cartilage, in a strip 0.5 cm wide under the vocal cords. The first and second receptor zones are diverse. In an adult, they touch only at the apices of the arytenoid cartilages. Surface receptors of both zones are located in the path of inhaled air and perceive tactile, temperature, chemical and pain stimuli. They are involved in the reflex regulation of breathing, voice formation and in the protective reflex of closing the glottis. Deeply located receptors of both zones are located in the perichondrium, in the places of muscle attachment, in the pointed parts of the vocal processes. They become irritated during voice production, signaling changes in the position of the cartilages and contractions of the muscles of the vocal apparatus. Uniform receptors of the third zone are located in the path of exhaled air and are irritated by fluctuations in air pressure during exhalation.

Since muscle spindles are not found in the muscles of the human larynx, unlike other skeletal muscles, the function of proprioceptors is performed by deep receptors of the first and second zones.

Most of the afferent fibers of the larynx pass as part of the superior laryngeal nerve, and a smaller part - as part of the inferior laryngeal nerve, which is a continuation of the laryngeal recurrent nerve. Efferent fibers to the cricothyroid muscle pass in the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, and to the remaining muscles of the larynx - in the recurrent nerve.

Theory of voice formation. To form a voice and produce speech sounds, air pressure under the vocal cords is required, which is created by the expiratory muscles. However, speech sounds are not caused by passive vibrations of the vocal cords by a current of air from the lungs, vibrating their edges, but by active contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords. From the medulla oblongata to the internal thyroarytenoid muscles of the true vocal cords, efferent impulses arrive via the recurrent nerves with a frequency of 500 per 1 s (for the middle voice). Due to the transmission of impulses at different frequencies in individual groups of fibers of the recurrent nerve, the number of efferent impulses can double, up to 1000 per 1 s. Since in the human vocal cords all the muscle fibers are woven, like the teeth of a comb, into the elastic tissue that covers each vocal cord from the inside, a volley of impulses from the recurrent nerve is very accurately reproduced on the free edge of the ligament. Each muscle fiber contracts with extreme speed. The duration of the muscle potential is 0.8 ms. The latency period of the vocal cord muscles is much shorter than that of other muscles. These muscles are distinguished by exceptional fatigue, resistance to oxygen starvation, which indicates the very high efficiency of the biochemical processes occurring in them, and extreme sensitivity to the action of hormones.

The muscle contractions of the vocal cords are approximately 10 times the maximum air capacity beneath them. The pressure under the vocal cords is mainly regulated by the contraction of bronchial smooth muscle. When you inhale, it relaxes somewhat, and when you exhale, the inspiratory striated muscles relax, and the smooth muscles of the bronchi contract. The frequency of the fundamental tone of the voice is equal to the frequency of efferent impulses entering the muscles of the vocal cords, which depends on the emotional state. The higher the voice, the less chronaxy the recurrent nerve and vocal cord muscles are.

During the production of speech sounds (phonation), all the muscle fibers of the vocal cords simultaneously contract in a rhythm exactly equal to the frequency of the voice. Vibration of the vocal cords is the result of rapid rhythmic contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords caused by volleys of efferent impulses from the recurrent nerve. In the absence of air flow from the lungs, the muscle fibers of the vocal cords contract, but there is no sound. Therefore, to produce speech sounds, contraction of the muscles of the vocal cords and the flow of air through the glottis are necessary.

The vocal cords subtly respond to the amount of air pressure beneath them. The strength and tension of the internal muscles of the larynx are very diverse and change not only with the strengthening and raising of the voice, but also with its different timbres, even when pronouncing each vowel. The range of the voice can vary within about two octaves (an octave is a frequency interval corresponding to a 2-fold increase in the frequency of sound vibrations). The following voice registers are distinguished: bass - 80-341 vibrations per 1 s, tenor - 128-518, alto - 170-683, soprano - 246-1024.

The vocal register depends on the frequency of contractions of the muscle fibers of the vocal cords, therefore, on the frequency of the efferent impulses of the recurrent nerve. But the length of the vocal cords also matters. In men, due to the large size of the larynx and vocal cords, the voice is lower than in children and women, by approximately an octave. Bass vocal cords are 2.5 times thicker than sopranos. The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords: the more often they vibrate, the higher the voice.

During puberty, the size of the larynx increases significantly in male adolescents. The resulting lengthening of the vocal cords leads to a lowering of the voice register.

The pitch of the sound produced by the larynx does not depend on the amount of air pressure under the vocal cords and does not change when it increases or decreases. The air pressure beneath them affects only the intensity of the sound formed in the larynx (the strength of the voice), which is small at low pressure and increases parabolically with a linear increase in pressure. Sound intensity is measured by power in watts or microwatts per square meter (W/m2, μW/m2). The voice power during a normal conversation is approximately 10 microwatts. The weakest speech sounds have a power of 0.01 microwatts. The sound pressure level for an average spoken voice is 70 dB (decibel).

The strength of the voice depends on the amplitude of vibration of the vocal cords, therefore, on the pressure under the cords. The more pressure, the stronger. Voice timbre is characterized by the presence of certain partial tones, or overtones, in the sound. There are more than 20 overtones in the human voice, of which the first 5-6 are the loudest with a number of vibrations of 256-1024 per 1 s. The timbre of the voice depends on the shape of the resonator cavities.

Resonator cavities have a huge influence on the act of speech. since the pronunciation of vowels and consonants does not depend on the larynx, which determines only the pitch of the sound, but on the shape of the oral cavity and pharynx and the relative position of the organs located in them. The shape and volume of the oral cavity and pharynx vary widely due to the exceptional mobility of the tongue, movements of the soft palate and lower jaw, contractions of the pharyngeal constrictors and movements of the epiglottis. The walls of these cavities are soft, so forced vibrations are excited in them by sounds of different frequencies and in a fairly wide range. In addition, the oral cavity is a resonator with a large opening into the external space and therefore emits sound, or is a sound antenna.

The cavity of the nasopharynx, lying to the side of the main air flow, can be a sound filter, absorbing certain tones and not letting them out. When the soft palate is lifted upward until it touches the back wall of the pharynx, the nose and nasopharynx are completely separated from the oral cavity and are excluded as resonators, while sound waves propagate into space through the open mouth. When all vowels are formed without exception, the resonator cavity is divided into two parts, connected by a narrow gap. As a result, two different resonant frequencies are formed. When pronouncing “u”, “o”, “a”, a narrowing is formed between the root of the tongue and the palatal valve, and when phonating “e” and “i” - between the tongue raised upward and the hard palate. Thus, two resonators are obtained: the rear one - large volume (low tone) and the front one - narrow, small (high tone). Opening the mouth increases the resonator tone and its attenuation. The lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, tongue, epiglottis, pharyngeal walls and false ligaments have a great influence on the sound quality and character of the vowel. When consonants are formed, the sound is caused not only by the vocal cords, but also by the friction of air strings between the teeth (s), between the tongue and the hard palate (g, z, w, h) or between the tongue and the soft palate (d, j), between the lips ( b, p), between the tongue and teeth (d, t), with intermittent movement of the tongue (p), with the sound of the nasal cavity (m, n). When vowels are phonated, overtones are enhanced regardless of the fundamental tone. These increasing overtones are called formants.

Formants are resonant amplifications corresponding to the natural frequency of the vocal tract. The maximum number of them depends on its total length. An adult male may have 7 formants, but 2-3 formants are important for distinguishing speech sounds.

Each of the five main vowels is characterized by formants of different heights. For “y” the number of oscillations in 1 s is 260-315, “o” - 520-615, “a” - 650-775, “e” - 580-650, “i” 2500-2700. In addition to these tones, each vowel has even higher formants - up to 2500-3500. A consonant sound is a modified vowel that appears when there is an obstacle to the sound wave coming from the larynx in the oral and nasal cavities. In this case, parts of the wave collide with each other and noise arises.

Main speech - phoneme. Phonemes do not coincide with sound; they can consist of more than one sound. The set of phonemes in different languages ​​is different. There are 42 phonemes in the Russian language. Phonemes retain unchanged distinctive features - a spectrum of tones of a certain intensity and duration. A phoneme can have several formants, for example “a” contains 2 main formants - 900 and 1500 Hz, “and” - 300 and 3000 Hz. The phonemes of consonants have the highest frequency (“s” - 8000 Hz, “f” - 12,000 Hz). Speech uses sounds from 100 to 12,000 Hz.

The difference between loud speech and whispering depends on the function of the vocal cords. When whispering, the noise of air friction against the blunt edge of the vocal cord occurs as it passes through a moderately narrowed glottis. During loud speech, due to the position of the vocal processes, the sharp edges of the vocal cords are directed towards the air stream. The variety of speech sounds depends on the muscles of the vocal apparatus. It is caused mainly by contraction of the muscles of the lips, tongue, lower jaw, soft palate, pharynx and larynx.

The muscles of the larynx perform three functions: 1) opening the vocal cords during inhalation, 2) closing them while protecting the airways, and 3) voice production.

Consequently, during oral speech, a very complex and subtle coordination of speech muscles occurs, caused by the cerebral hemispheres and primarily by the speech analyzers located in them, which occurs due to hearing and the influx of afferent kinesthetic impulses from the organs of speech and breathing, which are combined with impulses from all external and internal analyzers. This complex coordination of movements of the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, soft palate, lips, tongue, lower jaw and respiratory muscles that provide oral speech is called articulation. It is carried out by a complex system of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes of these muscles.

In the process of speech formation, the motor activity of the speech apparatus transforms into aerodynamic phenomena and then into acoustic ones.

Under the control of auditory feedback, kinesthetic feedback is activated continuously when pronouncing words. When a person thinks, but does not utter words (inner speech), kinesthetic impulses arrive in volleys, with unequal intensity and different durations of intervals between them. When solving new and difficult problems in the mind, the strongest kinesthetic impulses enter the nervous system. When listening to speech for the purpose of memorizing, these impulses are also large.

Human hearing is unequally sensitive to sounds of different frequencies. A person not only hears the sounds of speech, but also simultaneously reproduces them with his vocal apparatus in a very reduced form. Therefore, in addition to hearing, proprioceptors of the vocal apparatus are involved in speech perception, especially vibration receptors located in the mucous membrane under the ligaments and in the soft palate. Irritation of vibration receptors increases the tone of the sympathetic nervous system and thereby changes the functions of the respiratory and vocal apparatus.