Inventions and inventors of the 19th century printing press. Who invented the typewriter? Modern printing machines

It must be admitted that Wedgwood’s invention was then actively used in office work for a good two centuries to obtain several copies of one document. And on dot matrix printers, the carbon copy was a great help in the absence of a cartridge.

Let us return, however, to the history of the appearance of typewriters in general and keyboards in particular. So, in September 1867, poet, journalist and part-time inventor Christopher Latham Sholes from Milwaukee filed an application for a new invention - a typewriter. After the appropriate bureaucratic procedures, which, as usual, lasted for several months, Sholes received a patent at the beginning of 1868. In addition to Christopher Sholes, the co-authors of the invention were Carlos Glidden and a certain S. W. Soule, who also worked on the creation of the first typewriter. However, the Americans would not be Americans if they did not try to make a profit from their brainchild.

Production of the first typewriters began at the very end of 1873, and in 1874 they entered the American market under the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer brand.

It must be said that the keyboard of the first typewriters was strikingly different from the current one. The keys were placed in two rows, and the letters on them were in alphabetical order.

In addition to this, printing could only be done in capital letters, and there were no numbers 1 and 0 at all. They were successfully replaced by the letters "I" and "O". The text was printed under the roller and was not visible. To look at the work, it was necessary to lift the carriage, which was located on hinges for this purpose. In general, like any new invention, the first typewriters had many shortcomings. And among others, as it soon became clear, the placement of the keys was unsuccessful. The fact is that as the printing speed increased, the hammers of the typewriter with the letter stamps attached to them, which struck the paper, did not have time to return to their place and clung to each other, threatening to lead to a breakdown of the printing unit. Obviously, the problem could be solved in two ways - either by somehow artificially slowing down the printing speed, or by developing a new typewriter design that would prevent the keys from jamming.

Christopher Scholes proposed an elegant solution that made it possible to do without changing the mechanics of the rather complex design of the printing unit. It turned out that in order for things to go better, it is enough to change the order of the letters printed on the keys.

Here's the thing. Since the hammers were located in an arc forming a half circle, the letters located close to each other most often jammed during printing. Sholes decided to arrange the letters on the keys so that the letters forming stable English language pairs were located as far away from each other as possible.

In order to select the “correct” arrangement of keys, Sholes used special tables that reflected the frequency of occurrence of certain stable combinations of letters in writing. The relevant materials were prepared by teacher Amos Densmore, brother of James Densmore, who, in fact, financed the work of Christopher Sholes to create a typewriter.

After Sholes arranged the hammers with the letters in the required order inside the carriage of the printing press, the letters on the keyboard formed a very whimsical sequence, starting with the QWERTY letters. It is under this name that the Sholes keyboard is known in the world: QWERTY keyboard or Universal keyboard. In 1878, after the modernization was tested on typewriters being produced, Sholes received a patent for his invention.

Since 1877, the Remington company began producing typewriters based on the Scholes patent. The first model machine could print only capital letters, but the second model (Remington No. 2), which began serial production in 1878, added a case switch, which made it possible to print both capital and lowercase letters. To switch between registers, the print carriage was moved up or down using a special Shift key. In this and subsequent (until 1908) Remington typewriters, the printed text remained invisible to the worker, who had the opportunity to look at the text only by lifting the carriage.

Meanwhile, Scholes' example inspired other inventors. In 1895, Franz Wagner received a patent for a typewriter with horizontal letter levers striking the paper roller from the front. The main advantage of this design was that the newly printed text was visible during operation. He sold the rights to its production to manufacturer John Underwood. This machine turned out to be so convenient that it soon became very popular and Underwood made a huge fortune from it.

Christopher Scholes's first typewriter was designed for typing... with two fingers. The emergence of the ten-finger printing method is attributed by historians to a certain Mrs. Longley (L. V. Longley), who demonstrated new approach in 1878. And a little later, Frank E. McGurrin, a clerk at the federal court in Salt Lake City, proposed the concept of the “touch typing” method, in which the typist worked without looking at the keyboard at all. At the same time, typewriter manufacturers, trying to prove to the public the promise of the new technology, held numerous competitions for printing speed on the first Remingtons and Underwoods, which, of course, spurred typists to type faster and faster. Very soon, the pace of work of “typewriter workers” exceeded the average 20 words per minute typical for handwritten text, and typewriters themselves became an integral working tool for secretaries and a completely familiar element of offices.

Until 1907, Remington and Sons consistently produced nine models of printing machines, the design of which was gradually improved. The production of typewriters grew like an avalanche. In the first ten years, more than one hundred thousand copies of Remington were produced.

In addition to large firms (such as Remington and Underwood), typewriters were produced by hundreds of small factories and dozens of large companies specializing in precision engineering. Dozens of new designs and hundreds of models have appeared. Of these developments, only about twenty retained their significance by the middle of the century.

In the period 1890-1920, there was an intensive search for design solutions in order to obtain clear, visible text when printing and expand the capabilities of the printing machine. Among the machines of this time, two main groups can be distinguished: with a single writing medium and with a lever printing mechanism. For machines of the first group, the letters are printed on a single lettering medium various shapes, either an indicator device or a keyboard was used to select a printed character. By changing the typeface it was possible to print in several languages. These machines produced text that was visible when printed, but their low printing speed and poor punching ability limited their use.

In machines with a lever printing mechanism, the characters are located at the ends of individual levers; printing is done by striking the type lever on the paper support shaft when pressing a key. The variety of lever printing machines of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reflects the struggle of ideas aimed at making text visible when printing, increasing typing speed and reliability of the machine, and ensuring a “light” strike on the keys.

In 1911, Russia held comparative analysis energy consumption when writing different models of typewriters. It turned out that writing 8,000 characters is equivalent to moving 85 pounds with your fingers on Remington No. 9, 100 pounds on Smith's Premier, and 188 pounds on Postal!

The typewriter was widely used by writers. It is noteworthy that Mark Twain's work "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer", published in 1876, became the first book the text of which was prepared using a typewriter.

Office L.N. Tolstoy, for example, the great writer’s acquaintances could not imagine without the old Remington, just as the office of V.V. It is impossible to imagine Mayakovsky without his beloved "Underwood".

Over its more than 100-year history, typewriters have seen many talented works; they have been directly involved in the creation of thousands of masterpieces and bestsellers around the world. For many decades, the typewriter was considered the main working tool of writers, philosophers and journalists.

The history of the creation of a typewriter began in 1714, when a patent was issued for a certain typewriter. It was invented by plumber Henry Mill from England, but, unfortunately, there is no exact information about the mechanism and photos of the unit itself.

It took almost a whole century for the first, and importantly, working typewriter to be created in 1808. The creator and developer was Pellegrino Turi, who came up with it for a friend of Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzono. Caroline was blind, and with the help of such a device she could correspond with her relatives. Caroline Fantoni da Fivisono's letters have survived to this day, but the writing apparatus has not. It is known that paper stained with soot (similar to carbon paper) was used for printing. By the way, the idea of ​​“copying” multiple documents was not developed by Turi. In 1806, the Englishman Ralph Wedgwood patented “coal paper”. For another two centuries, it was actively used in office work to quickly obtain copies.

But let's return to printing presses.

The next attempt to create a unit suitable for “fast printing” was in Russia, when M.I. Alisov developed a typesetting machine. Mikhail Ivanovich wanted to simplify and facilitate the procedure for rewriting manuscripts and originals, and he succeeded. The car performed well. True, the high cost of the product put an end to the history of the development of this product.

September 1867 became a landmark date for all writing units in the world.

They say that a talented person is talented in everything. Christopher Latham Sholes was a writer, journalist and, of course, inventor. In 1867, he applied for a patent for the production of his “brainchild” - a printing machine. It took the “bureaucratic machine” months to make a decision, but nevertheless, in 1868, Christopher received the coveted confirmation. Glidden and Soule were listed as co-authors of the development.

Six years later, the first batch of writing units under the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer brand entered the American market. It should be noted that the appearance was very different from what we are used to seeing: the keyboard consisted of two rows of letters placed according to an alphabetical hierarchy. By the way, there were no numbers 1 and 0, their role was played by “I” and “O”. The first unit had plenty of disadvantages. This is an inconvenient arrangement of letters, and the inability to work quickly, because the hammers on which the stamps with letters are attached did not have time to take their original position and got confused with each other.

By the way, “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” by Mark Twain, published in 1876, was printed on just such a typewriter with “tangling hammers.” One can envy the author's patience.

There were several ways to solve the problem of hammers getting tangled: work more slowly (this did not suit the writers) or change the design of the machine. But Christopher Sholes used a third method: he changed the order of the letters. The fact is that the hammers were installed on an arc, and most often the letters placed in the “neighborhood” jammed. And then, the developer decided to fix them so that the letters that participate in the formation of stable combinations are further away from each other. By placing the letters in the correct order, the updated keyboard began with letters Q,W, E, R, T, Y.

The QWERTY layout or universal keyboard has become popular all over the world.

Did you know that L.N. Tolstoy’s favorite writing assistant, without which it was impossible to imagine the interior of his office, was the reliable Remington, and his colleague in the writing workshop V.V. Mayakovsky was an ardent fan of Underwood.

In 1877, Sholes sold the rights to manufacture the typewriter to the Remington arms company. And this was the beginning of a new chapter in the history of the creation of the typewriter. Remington engineers supplemented the “source code” with the ability to print uppercase and lowercase letters (in the original version, only uppercase letters were written). To do this, we added the “Shift” key.

Sholes' success inspired other inventors. In 1895, Franz Wagner received a patent for the manufacture of a machine with horizontally located levers that strike the paper roller from the front. The main difference, and at the same time advantage, from the invention of 1867 was that the printed text was visible during operation. Wagner then sold the rights to manufacture his typewriter to John Underwood. The design was very convenient to use, and very soon new owner made a fortune from it.

In addition to Remingtons and Underwoods, dozens of other companies produced their own versions of other typewriters. From 1890-1920, these devices were constantly modernized and improved. Among the machines of this period, two main types can be distinguished: with a single letter carrier and with a lever device. The convenience of the first ones was that the printed text could be seen immediately, but at the same time they were very slow in operation and had poor penetrating ability. The advantage of the latter was speed.

The last typewriter factory in India was closed in April 2011. This means that the era of this writing tool is officially over.

Typewriter.

A typewriter (colloquial "typewriter") is a mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic-mechanical device that has a set of keys, the pressing of which causes the corresponding characters to be printed on a medium (in most cases, paper).

Typewriters were widely used in the 19th and 20th centuries. Currently, typewriters have largely fallen out of use; their functions have become more successfully performed personal computers equipped with printers.

Typewriter.

The operating principle of most typewriters is to write characters onto paper using special levers ending in pads with metal or plastic characters. When the corresponding key is pressed, the lever strikes the ink-soaked ribbon, thus leaving an imprint of the letter on the supplied sheet of paper. Before printing the next character, the paper sheet is automatically shifted (and, as a rule, the ink ribbon is scrolled).

To print multiple copies of the same document, you use sheets of carbon paper sandwiched between regular sheets of paper.

The history of the creation of the typewriter.

Like many other technical devices and inventions, the development of the typewriter mechanism was not the fruit of the efforts of one single person. Many people, jointly or independently of each other, came up with the idea of ​​​​fast text printing.

The first mention of a typewriter dates back to 1714, when Henry Mill received a patent for the invention of a typewriter from the Queen of England herself. Henry Mill filed a patent not only for a typewriter, but also for a method of sequentially printing characters on paper. But, unfortunately, there is no other information about this writing machine. Also, no information has been preserved about the actual creation and use of the described machine.

In 1808, Italian Pellegrino Turri, also known as the inventor of carbon paper, created his own printing press. Details about the design of his typewriter are also unknown, but texts printed on this device have survived to this day.

In 1843, the Frenchman Charles Thurbert received a patent for a typewriter he invented for the blind. It was he who came up with the idea of ​​lever transmission of the movement of letters and signs.

In 1870, Russian inventor Mikhail Ivanovich Alisov invented a typesetting machine, known as a “skoropychatnik” or “skoropistets”, with the aim of replacing calligraphic copying of papers and manuscripts, a machine for transferring onto lithographic stone.

Alisov's speed printer was suitable for its purpose, and received medals at three world exhibitions in Vienna (1873), Philadelphia (1876) and Paris (1878). By printing method and appearance Alisov's machine was significantly different from most writing machines we are familiar with; wax paper was punched on it, which was then multiplied on a rotator. This machine did not become popular due to the high cost of printing.

In 1868, American journalist and inventor Christopher Latham Sholes from Wisconsin received a patent for his typewriter, which, after significant changes and improvements in design, began to be mass produced in 1874 under the name Remington No. 1.

Remington Typewriter No. 1.

Among the first users of Remington were well-known personalities, in particular the American Mark Twain and Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy.

In the photograph, L.N. Tolstoy and his daughter behind Remington.

Until 1907, Remington and Sons consistently produced nine models of printing machines, the design of which was gradually improved.

The production of typewriters grew like an avalanche. In the first ten years of Remington typewriters, over one hundred thousand copies were produced.

Typewriters "Remington" No. 10 and No. 11.

In 1890, inventor Franz Wagner received a patent for a printing press with horizontal letter arms and visible type when printing. Wagner sold the rights to produce his typewriter to the American manufacturer John Underwood. This machine turned out to be so convenient that it soon began to be in mass demand and Underwood made a huge fortune from it.

The photo shows an Underwood typewriter.

In addition to large firms (such as Remington and Underwood), typewriters were produced by hundreds of small factories and dozens of large companies specializing in precision engineering. As a result, dozens of new designs and hundreds of models of typewriters appeared.

In the period 1890-1920, there was an intensive search for design solutions in order to obtain clear, clearly visible text when printing and expand the capabilities of the printing machine. Among the machines of this time, two main groups can be distinguished: with a single writing medium and with a lever printing mechanism.

For machines of the first group, with a single letter carrier, the letters are on a single letter carrier of various shapes; to select a printed character, either an indicator device or a keyboard was used. By changing the typeface it was possible to print in several languages. These machines produced text that was visible when printed, but their low printing speed and poor punching ability limited their use.

In machines with a lever printing mechanism, the characters are located at the ends of individual levers; printing is done by striking the type lever on the paper support shaft when pressing a key. The variety of lever printing machines of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reflects the struggle of ideas aimed at obtaining clearly visible text when printing, increasing the typing speed and reliability of the machine, and ensuring a “light” strike on the keys.

In 1911, a comparative analysis of energy consumption when printing on various types of typewriters was carried out in Russia. It turned out that typing 8,000 characters is equivalent to moving 85 pounds with your fingers on a Remington No. 9 machine, 100 pounds on a Smiths-Premier machine, and 188 pounds on a Postal machine!

Typewriters in Russia.

In pre-revolutionary Russia there was no production of their own typewriters; therefore, foreign-made typewriters were used.

The first writing machine in Russia (in the USSR) was produced in 1928 in Kazan, and was called “Yanalif”.

The photo shows a Yanalif typewriter.

At a later time, the most common domestic brands of typewriters in the USSR were “Ukraine” (stationery), “Moskva” (portable), “Lyubava” (portable) and “Yatran” (stationery).

The photograph shows the Moscow typewriter.

Of the foreign typewriters, typewriting machines of the brands “Optima” and “Robotron” (GDR, stationery, in various modifications), “Erika” (GDR, portable), “UNIS tbm de luxe” (SFRY, portable under license) were quite widespread. Olympia" (Germany)) and "Consul" (Czechoslovakia, portable).

The photo shows the Consul typewriter.

The end of the era of typewriters.

In the middle of the 20th century, it was impossible to imagine the office of a commercial or scientific organization without a typewriter.

The emergence of more advanced computer technology at the end of the 20th century led to the displacement of typewriters from mass use.

By the beginning of the 21st century, only a small number of traditional manufacturing companies, such as Smith-Corona, Olivetti, Adler-Royal, Olympia, Brother, Nakajima, continued to produce such devices.

In April 2011, the typewriter plant in Mumbai, owned by the Indian company Godrej and Boyce, closed.

In November 2012, Brother released a writing machine described as the "last one made in the UK". This typewriter was donated to the London Science Museum.

Modern typewriters.

And yet, even today there are people, mostly writers, who are accustomed and want to use not computers, but modern analogues typewriters.

For such people, they come up with various hybrids of a typewriter and a computer.

Typewriter. Typewriter. History of the typewriter.

Who invented the first typewriter and in what year?

The first typewriter was invented almost three hundred years ago, in 1714, by Henry Mill, but, unfortunately, it has not reached the present day in any form. Later, in 1808, the Italian Pellegrino Turri made a typewriter of his own design for Countess Caroline Fantoni de Fivizzono. Madame Caroline could not write letters by hand because she suffered from blindness, and the device was needed so that she could correspond with friends. However, this example of the engineering thought of the brilliant and caring Italian was not preserved. Evidence of the existence of the Turri typewriter still exists today - letters from the Countess have been preserved, which means that the device was actually manufactured and performed its functions.

Twenty years later, back in 1828, Detroit resident William Burt created his own “alternative” typewriter. It was stated that with the help of this new product a person can write text as quickly as with a regular pen. Why the device did not become popular, the Internet carefully keeps silent. In Denmark, Pastor Malling Hansen from Malling invented a very complex typewriter with fifty-two buttons. The device looked more like a needle case than a typewriter in the modern sense. The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche received one of these machines for Christmas from his mother and sister, which may have helped him see the world in such an extraordinary way.
Christopher Latham Scholes from Milwaukee in Wisconsin (USA), who on some sites is also called Christoph Scholes, is rightfully considered the inventor of the first commercially successful typewriter. And it is to him that we all owe the intricate QWERTY layout that inspired today's story. So, in order. Christopher Scholes was once a famous publisher, politician and philosopher. First, together with Carlos Gliden, he invented a machine for automatic page numbering, and only after that Carlos proposed inventing a mechanism designed for writing letters. The first conceptual prototype of a typewriter appeared in 1863, that is, almost 150 years after Henry Mill's machine. It was made from an old telegraph key, used for typing Morse code, and a lever. Sholes attached a metal letter to the lever and, pressing the resulting “button,” forced the letter through a carbon copy to hit a sheet of paper, under which there was a glass surface.

Only a small number of traditional manufacturing companies, such as Smith-Corona, Olivetti, Adler-Royal, Olympia, Brother, Nakajima, etc., continued to produce this kind of devices, and most of the listed companies at that time were producing electronic models of typewriters.

The world's last typewriter factory, owned by the Indian company Godrej and Boyce, was closed in 2011.

History of creation

Like most other technical devices and inventions, the development of a mechanism typewriter was not the fruit of the efforts of one single person. Many people, jointly or independently of each other, came up with the idea of ​​​​fast text printing. The first patent for a machine of this kind was issued by Queen Anne of England to Henry Mill. Henry Mill) back in 1714. The inventor patented not only the machine, but also a method for sequentially printing characters on paper. Unfortunately, no detailed information about his invention has survived. Also, no information has been preserved about the actual creation and use of the described machine.

It was only almost 100 years later that people became interested again in the ability to print quickly. Around 1808 Pellegrino Turri ( Pellegrino Turri), also known as the inventor of carbon paper, creates his own printing press. Details about his invention are unknown today, but texts printed on this device have survived to this day.

Speed ​​printer Alisova

The machine never became popular due to the high quality of printing. When the first production batch of machines made in England was received in 1877, they were equated to printing machines, and everything that was printed on them had to be censored. This was due to the fact that it produced prints of excellent quality, completely similar to printing ones. Due to mandatory censorship, no one wanted to purchase these typewriters, and the inventor had to open his own institution for printing lectures, which existed for a very short time.

In pre-revolutionary Russia, typewriters were not produced, but were used. However, due to the peculiarities of pre-revolutionary spelling, the placement of the keys was somewhat different from the current one. So, in the place where the letter “C” is now, “I” was placed, and in the place of “A” - “B”, since then this letter was used very often, at the end of all words ending in a consonant. The letters “C” and “E” were located in the topmost “digital” row after the number “0”. The bottom row was slightly shifted to the left, because after the letters “I” and “CH” in the place of the current “C” key there was a key with the letter “ѣ”, “C” was the next key after it. The first typewriter in our country was produced in 1928 in Kazan, it was called “Yanalif”. At a later time, the most common domestic brands of typewriters in the USSR were “Ukraine” (stationery) and “Moskva” (portable). Of the foreign ones, “Optima” (GDR, stationery) and “Consul” (Czechoslovakia, portable) were quite widely distributed. However, in terms of prevalence, typewriters were significantly inferior to computers.

The world's last typewriter factory closed in 2011.

Design features

Most typewriter designs fall into one of two main types. The most widely used are lever-segment typewriters, in which the imprint is produced as a result of the impact of lettering levers located in the slots of the segment on the paper. The second type includes segmentless typewriters, which use a writing head instead of levers; Machines of this type include Hammond, IBM Selectric, Yatran machines. There is also a division into mechanical and electric typewriters. In addition, typewriters were divided into stationery and portable. Stationery machines were used, as a rule, in stationary conditions. Portable machines were placed in a small suitcase and were intended for people in “creative professions” (journalists, writers, etc.). Some portable typewriters had smaller print than on stationery typewriters. Stationery and typewriters also differed in the number of keys, which for Russian typewriters could range from 42 to 46. The reduction in the number of keys was achieved by eliminating the key with the letter “ ” and using homography of some letters and numbers (instead of the number “ ” the letter “ could be used ", instead of "" - ""), and some other abbreviations. On stationery machines it was allowed to print along the wide side of an A4 sheet and, accordingly, in A3 format; on portable machines - only along the narrow side of an A4 sheet.

Carriage

Paper transport mechanism

Printing mechanism

Improvements

Two-color ribbon made it possible to print, if necessary, in a color other than black. The color change device could completely turn off the rise of the tape, and the machine would switch to colorless printing mode, for example, to create an inscription on foil.

Electric typewriter "IBM Selectric", 1961

IN electric typewriter the blow is produced by an electric drive, which allows you to press the keys with little force; In addition, you can type a series of identical characters simply by holding down a key. In general, the printing speed is higher, but only when using the blind ten-finger printing method.

IN printing machine simultaneously with printing the text, the punched tape is perforated, which allows you to collect a kind of library of standard documents - the printing machine can then print the text from the punched tape; In addition, by cutting and gluing the punched tape, you can “edit” the typed text.

IN printing and typesetting machine a proportional rather than a fixed font is used; In addition, carbon paper ribbon is used instead of an ink ribbon. The result is very clear, typographic-looking text from which printing plates can be produced photographically, thereby avoiding the traditional typesetting process.

Multi-keyboard typewriter in fact, it consists of several typewriters placed side by side and connected so that the carriage can move from one typewriter to another. This allows you to print, for example, alternately in Latin and Cyrillic. Due to their bulkiness, they were rarely used - usually text in a “foreign” alphabet was written by hand.

Designer typewriter used for writing inscriptions on drawings; usually mounted on a drawing board ruler.

Application

For much of the 20th century, almost all official documents emanating from government agencies (and their internal document flow) were typed. Moreover, in the USSR, statements, receipts and autobiographies of citizens were written by hand; Protocols were often drawn up by hand. Publishing houses also required manuscripts to be submitted in typewritten form, which greatly facilitated the work of typesetters, who no longer needed to parse the often incomprehensible handwriting of the authors.

Retyping handwritten texts on a typewriter was the job of special workers - typists (since the profession was predominantly female, the male version of the term did not take root); Previously, they were also called Remingtonists or Remingtonists (after the brand of Remington typewriters). Work on printing documents on typewriters was called typewriting work and was carried out in special organizations or departments (“typewriting bureaus”).

Beginning in the last third of the 20th century, computer technology began to replace typewriters. Today, computers (with associated peripheral devices) have completely taken over the functions of typewriters, which have thus become hopelessly outdated.

Typescript

Typewritten text has the following characteristic features:

• due to the limited set of characters, some characters were combined - for example, left and right quotation marks are not distinguished, hyphen and dash are combined.

All this made it possible to simplify the design of the typewriter.

Font "Courier"

When creating teletypes and computer printers, these features were repeated - also in order to simplify the hardware and software. Many early word processors (for example, "Lexicon", "ChiWriter") were focused on simulating typewritten text - partly because the design of many documents was regulated state standards created during the era of typewriters.

Based on computer fonts from the Courier family, used as the default monospaced fonts in many operating systems, lies a typewriter font. In addition, there are designer fonts that imitate “dirty” text printed on a real typewriter (for example, “Trixie”).

Mechanical typewriters made it possible to produce text with different spacing between lines: single, one and a half, double, etc. The concept of line spacing is currently used in word processors. IN regulatory documents and standards governing the design of text documents, the concept of “typewriter interval” (“typewritten interval”) is still used, which is numerically equal to the distance between the baselines divided by the height of the character.

see also

Notes

1. Andrey Velichko The era of typewriters has ended. Compulenta (April 26, 2011). Retrieved December 12, 2011.
2. Oden, Charles Vonley (1917), "Evolution of the Typewriter", New York: Printed by J. E. Hetsch, pp. 17-22 , (English)
3. Kupriyanov Alexey Black rectangle. Copy paper turns 200 years old. Polit.ru(20 October 2006). Archived
4. Lermantov V.V. encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron. - Saint Petersburg. - T. 23A. - pp. 753-754.
5. Goizman Shimon Ruvimovich. Mikhail Ivanovich Alisov - inventor of the typesetting machine. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
6. The world's last typewriter factory has closed in India. Gazeta.ru (April 26, 2011). Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved April 26, 2011.
7. Berezin B.I. Self-instruction manual for typing. - M.: Light industry, 1969. - 160 p. - 70,000 copies.
8. Typist // / Ed. D. N. Ushakova. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia; OGIZ; , 1935-1940.
9. Remingtonist // Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / Ed. D. N. Ushakova. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia; OGIZ; State Publishing House of Foreign and National Dictionaries, 1935-1940.
10. The shift of the next line relative to the previous one was carried out automatically during the so-called “carriage return” - the transition to printing the next line, produced by moving a special lever. Typically, the spacing could be manually adjusted by turning the paper feed shaft.

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