What is a particle? Learning Russian What is the meaning of particles

What is a particle in Russian? Previously, particles meant all auxiliary parts of speech. In the 19th century representative of the Kharkov linguistic school A.V. Dobiash began to classify particles as a separate category, which was the beginning of a narrow approach to the issue of particles. V.V. Vinogradov also devoted his works to their research.

Demonstrative particles in the Russian language are included in the category. To learn how to correctly identify examples of demonstrative particles in a sentence, it is not enough to learn this list; you need to correctly determine the semantic relationships within a phrase or sentence.

Particle as a separate part of speech

In modern morphology, a particle is an auxiliary part of speech that carries additional semantic, evaluative or emotional meaning of a word, phrase or sentence, and can also serve to form some forms of the word.

The particles themselves do not express lexical meaning, but they can be homonymous to some significant words.

Compare:

1. She hasn't arrived yet (yet - adverb). When else will she arrive? (also a particle)
2. The summer was cold (was - verb). She went, but came back (it was a particle).

The main difference between particles and prepositions and conjunctions is their inability to express grammatical relationships. What makes them similar to other function words is their immutability and lack of a syntactic role (that is, they are not members of sentences). However, it is worth noting that the word “yes” as an affirmative particle, and the word “no” as a negative particle, no can become independent indivisible sentences. But at the same time, one should not confuse the particle “no” and the negative word “no”, which is used in impersonal sentences. For example: “No, just listen to how she sings!” (no - particle). “I don’t have time” (no is a negative word). During parsing, a particle may be highlighted together with the main word on which it depends, or not highlighted at all.

Types of particles depending on their composition

Based on their composition, particles are divided into simple and compound. Simple ones consist of one word (would, whether, zhe), and compound ones consist of two (rarely more) words (that would be, however, unlikely). Compounds, in turn, can be disjunctive, when in a sentence it is possible to divide a particle in other words.

1. I wish I could go to Moscow.
2. I wish I could go to Moscow.

And indivisible, when dividing a particle in other words is impossible. Indivisible particles also include phraseologized particles, those combinations of function words, the semantic connection between which has now lost its original meaning (no other than that, it depends, it’s the same).

Particle functions

In spoken and written speech, particles perform the following expression functions:

• incentive, subjunctiveness, convention, desirability;
• subjective-modal characteristics and assessments;
• purpose, questioning, affirmation or negation;
• action or state depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.

Particle discharges

In accordance with their functions, all particles are divided into categories:

1. Formative (let, yes, let, would, etc.). They are used to form the imperative and conditional moods (let him run, would he run).
2. Negative (no water, no bread; does not bring, not at all funny).
3. Expressing a sign (action, state) depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.
4. Modal particles. They carry additional semantic connotations or express feelings.

Types of modal particles

The group of modal particles is quite extensive and can be divided into several types:

1. Demonstrative particles (here, there).
2. Interrogative particles (is it, is it, really).
3. Clarifying particles (precisely, exactly).
4. Excretory-restrictive particles (only, simply, if only).
5. Reinforcing particles (even, after all, after all).
6. Exclamation particles (like, what for, well, right).
7. Particles expressing doubt (hardly, hardly).
8. Affirmative particles (exactly, yes, yes).
9. Particles expressing mitigation to the requirement(s).

Demonstrative particles

The discharge of a particular particle can only be determined in context, since many of them are homonymous. Therefore, it is necessary to know what values ​​the particles of each category have. Demonstrative particles are those that point to objects, actions and phenomena of the surrounding reality, and also connect and demonstratively emphasize words. The most common examples of this type: this, here, there, it, colloquial - in, some others. According to some studies, a postpositive particle is also adjacent to demonstrative particles - in combinations like: then, there, the same, the same, in the same place, where it is connected to pronouns using the agglutination method. Examples of demonstrative particles: “Here is my house”, “There is my garden”, “What kind of song is this?”

Some features of demonstrative particles

The specifics of the use of demonstrative particles can be considered using the example of the demonstrative particle - out. The fact is that in the process of using this particle in various contexts, a shift in emphasis is observed from it. For example, in the sentences: “There he comes” and “There it is,” an intonation difference is clearly visible.

You can more clearly trace the relationship of the remaining particle categories with the index ones in the table.

Particles are used quite often both in oral and written speech, so to use them correctly you need to be able to determine their meaning and category. To practice this skill, you can look for examples of demonstrative particles or other discharges in works of fiction during daily reading.

In a sentence or serves to form word forms.

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General properties of particles

The class of particles combines constant service (non-significant) words, which:

• express a wide variety of subjective-modal characteristics: incentive, subjunctiveness, convention, desirability, as well as evaluation of the message or its individual parts;
• participate in expressing the purpose of the message (interrogativeness), as well as in expressing affirmation or negation;
• characterize an action or state by its course over time, by completeness or incompleteness, effectiveness or ineffectiveness of its implementation.

The listed functions of particles are grouped:

• in the function of shaping
• as a function of the various communicative characteristics of the message.

What all these functions have in common is that in all cases they contain

• meaning of attitude,
• the relationship (relatedness) of an action, state or whole message to reality,
• the speaker's relationship to what is being communicated,

Moreover, both of these types of relations are very often combined in the meaning of one particle.

The meaning of a particle as a separate word is the relationship that it expresses in a sentence.

Particle discharges

In accordance with the above functions, the following main categories of particles are distinguished:

1. formative (subjunctive) particles(let, let, let, yes, let, would, b, happen):
   • word forms;
   • forming degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs;
2. negative particles(no, no, not at all, far from, not at all, not at all);
3. particles characterizing a sign(action or state) by its course over time, by completeness or incompleteness, effectiveness or ineffectiveness of implementation;
4. modal particles:
   • interrogative particles(whether, really, really);
   • demonstrative particles(here, there);
   • clarifying particles(exactly, just, directly, exactly);
   • excretory and restrictive particles(only, only, exclusively, almost, solely);
   • exclamation particles(what for, how);
   • enhancing particles(even, not, after all, after all, that’s all);
   • relaxation of the requirement-ka ( give it, pour it)-That (the milk has run out); the word -с is also used for these purposes (surcharge-s), derived from the abbreviated address “sir”;
   • doubt(hardly, hardly);
   • incentive particles(let, let, come on (those)).

It is essential that modal (evaluative, expressive) meanings in one form or another are also present in negative, interrogative particles that characterize an action in its course or effectiveness, in replica particles.

Classification of particles by origin

Antiderivatives

The primitives include the simplest (with a few exceptions) monosyllabic particles, which in modern language do not have living word-formation connections and formal relationships with words of other classes.

Non-primeval

All other particles are not primitive.

Classification of particles by composition

Simple

Particles consisting of one word are called simple. Simple particles include all primitive particles, as well as particles that, to varying degrees, display living connections with conjunctions, pronominal words, adverbs, verbs or prepositions. In addition to primitive particles, simple particles include: , good, more, more, literally, happens, happened, was, as if, after all, in (simple), at all, over there, here, it seems, everything, everything, where, look, yes (not as part of the command form), give (those), even, give (those), really, only, if, also, know, and, or, exactly, how, which, where, okay, whether, better, in no way (simple, question), nothing, nothing, but, however, finally, it, go (simple), positive, simple, straight, let, let, maybe, decisively, evenly, itself, rather , as if, completely, thank you (meaning good), so, there, to you, too, only, exactly, at least, what, purely (simple), that, so that, ek, this.

As already said, all these particles have close external and internal connections with other classes of words: they contain elements of meaning to varying degrees

• adverbs (literally, good, in (simple), at all, out, here, where, really, only, yet, exactly, how, where, okay, nothing, nothing, finally, positively, simply, directly, decisively, completely, absolutely, so, there, good),
• pronominal words (everything, everything, which, it, most, yourself, you, what, this),
• verbs (it happens, it happened, it was, come on, give, look, know,
• unions (and, fortunately, as if, after all, yes, even, if, and, or, whether, but, however, let, let, perhaps, exactly, as if, too, only, precisely, at least, that, so that, to),
• comparatives (more, more, better, sooner: He would rather die than agree; He would rather have a vacation!),
• prepositions (like: Is someone calling?),
• interjections (ek, thank you: It’s so hot! You can’t find a place for them. Thank you, I took a little nap in the cellar. N. Uspensky).

Sometimes in the same word the proximity and interweaving of the meanings of particle and conjunction, particle and adverb, particle and verb, particle and pronoun, particles and interjections are so close that opposing such meanings to each other as belonging to words of different classes turns out to be unlawful, and the word must qualify as “particle-conjunction”, “particle-adverb”, “particle-pronoun”, etc.;

Composite

Particles formed from two (less often more) words:

• two particles
• particles and unions,
• particles and prepositions,
• particles and a verb form or adverb isolated from its class.

Compound particles can be indivisible - their components in a sentence cannot be separated by other words, or disjunctive: their components in a sentence can be separated by other words. Within the constituent particles, phraseological particles are distinguished: these are several function words merged together (or function words and adverbs, forms of pronominal words or verbs isolated from their classes), living relationships between which are absent in the modern language; such particles can also be dissectable or non-segmentable.

Dismemberable

Their components in a sentence can be separated by other words. Dismemberable particles:

If only there was some rain!; If only there was some rain!); here it is (Here’s a friend for you!; Here’s the result for you!; Did you believe him? So trust people after that!); like this (These are the orders!; These are the orders!; Here we have a garden! almost (almost were late; almost broke my head); almost (It was almost the first time in his life that he lied); how not (How can I not understand!; How can I not know the way!); no matter how (No matter how it rains); if only (If only it wouldn’t rain!); little not (simple) (He began to ring the bell, but didn’t cut off the little. Dos.; Out of fear, he didn’t even fall to the ground. Lesk.); let him (Let him sing to himself!); sooner (spring sooner!; spring sooner!); so (and it emanates peace; so he did not recognize me); if only (Just not to be late!) only and (Only talking about the trip; Only about the trip and talking); at least (At least I wouldn’t grumble!); almost (was) not (almost broke my leg); almost (He almost became a big boss now).

Particles are always dismembered

Isn’t it (Shouldn’t we rest?), isn’t it (We shouldn’t spend the night here!).

Phraseologized particles:

No, no, and (yes, and) (No, no, yes, and he’ll come to visit; No, no, he’ll remember his grandfather); what the (What kind of news is this?; What kind of character do you have!); what of (what) (What of his promises to me!; what now of the fact that he has returned?).

One should distinguish from composite particles the various, easily arising and easily disintegrating complexes grouped around a simple particle, which are characteristic primarily of modal particles; For example:

Undivided

their components in a sentence cannot be separated by other words.

And then (- Aren’t you afraid? - Otherwise I’m afraid!; Will they let you spend the night? - And then suddenly they won’t let you in); without that (He’s already a silent man, but here he’s completely withdrawn. Field.; There’s no time to wait, anyway we’re already late); it would have been (simple) (If only I had not stayed, but gone home!); hardly; just (Only an hour of time); yet; lo and behold (colloquial) (Waited and waited, lo and behold, and fell asleep); far from (far from confident of success; far from beautiful); divi (simple) (divi would know the matter, otherwise he’s ignorant!); how good (How good the forest is! How tired you are!); it would be good; if (If not for the war!); Of course (They are not touching you. - If only you would have touched!; Good catch! - Still not good!); and there is (simple) (- He didn’t recognize it, apparently? - He didn’t recognize it and exists. Bazhov; - Look, guys, Pika! - Pika is there. Fad.); and so (Don’t be angry, I already repent; Why does he need money, he has a lot anyway); and then (They’re not allowed to go to the skating rink; I saw it a long time ago, and then only briefly; Talk to him. - I’ll talk about that too); as it is (simple) (You said everything as it is correctly. Bazhov; - Cold? - Cold as it is); how; just (I came just in time; I’m afraid of the service: you’ll just fall under responsibility. Turg.); how so (- Goodbye. - How so farewell?); somehow; where is it (How much fun!); okay; for what (for what is cunning, but even then he was mistaken); no way; unlikely; not at all (not at all a beauty); simply (He simply laughs at us); so-and-so (So-and-still didn’t show up?); so much (- I have all the tobacco. - So all of it?); or not (Or not life!); so-and-so (So-and-so glad!; So-and-so I see he’s calmed down); to the same place (To the same place from the laughing ones: I said something: he began to laugh. Mushroom; The boy, and argues there too); already (They did it themselves. - They did it themselves?; It’s a disease. - It’s a disease!); grab and (While they were getting ready, grab and the rain began); well (- Shall we go? - Well, let's go; I agree, well); or something (Call, or something?; Help or something!; Are you deaf?);

Phraseologized particles (phraseologism particles)

Several function words merged together (or function words and adverbs, forms of pronominal words or verbs isolated from their classes), living relationships between which are absent in modern language; such particles can also be dissectable or non-segmentable.

Then - no less than - (No other than a thunderstorm will gather in the evening) no so that - no so that - (What a fur coat they rotted! No so as to think: somewhere is the master's fur coat? Nekr.); either the matter (Ivan Ilyich made a stupid decision; what is the matter with you. L. Tolstoy); that - that and - look (that and look will die; look for that will be forgotten), that - that and wait - (simple) (The stove of that and wait for it to fall down. P. Bazhov); that - look at that - (that and look at that) (After all, there is too much trot; look at that, that will break the neck! N. Gogol); exactly the same; whatever it is - whatever it is (simple) (This is his favorite song).

Hyphenated and separate spelling of particles

1.Would(b), same(f), or(l), as if, they say written separately

2.If particles would it be are part of whole words, they are written together: really(particle), Later(adverb), Also(union), even(particle, union), to(particle, conjunction)

3. Particle -ka, -tka, -de, -s written with a hyphen

4. Particle some is written separately with pronouns if it is separated from it by prepositions: from someone, about something, about someone;

5. Particle after all written with a hyphen only after verbs( I did it, I found it out, I managed to) and as part of adverbs still, again, quite.In other cases the particle after all written separately.

Particle- this is a service part of speech, which serves to express shades of meaning of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms.

In accordance with this, particles are usually divided into two categories - modal (semantic) and formative.

Particles do not change and are not members of the sentence.

In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle not together with the word to which it refers; This is especially true for verbs.

TOformative Particles include particles that serve to form the conditional and imperative forms of the verb. These include the following: would (conditional mood indicator),let, let, yes, come on (indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components of the verb form and are part of the same part of the sentence as the verb; they are emphasized together with it even in a non-contact arrangement, for example: Iwould NotI'm late, IfwouldNotwentrain.

Modal (semantic) particles express semantic shades, feelings and attitudes of the speaker. According to the specific meaning they express, they are divided into the following groups:

1) negative: not, nor, not at all, far from, by no means;

2) interrogative: really, really, really;

3) index: here, there it is;

4) clarifying : exactly, just, straight, exactly, exactly;

5) restrictive and excretory: only, only, exclusively, almost, solely;

6) exclamation marks: what the, well, how;

7) amplifiers: even, neither, nor, after all, after all, well;

8) with the meaning of doubt : hardly; hardly.

In some studies, other groups of particles are also identified, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, they say, allegedly).

Particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate (In the room neither sound) and as an intensifier in the presence of already expressed negation (In the room Not audible neither sound). When repeated, the particle neither acts as a repeating coordinating conjunction (You can’t hear it in the room neither rustles, neither other sounds).

Modal (semantic) particle -That must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix -to, which acts as a means of forming indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Compare: some, somewhere (postfix) - I -That I know where to go (particle).

The postfixes -sya (-s), -to, -or, -ni and the prefixes not and neither are not particles as part of negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, regardless of whether they are written together or separately.

Morphological analysis of a particle

Particles are sorted according to the following plan:

I. Part of speech. Grammatical role (what it is used for).

II. Morphological characteristics: rank by value

According to school grammar, all particles - both semantic and formative - should be parsed according to this scheme, but it should be noted that the formative particle is a component of the verb form and is written out during morphological analysis along with the verb when parsing the verb as a part of speech.

Sample morphological analysis of a particle:

I'm not saying that he didn't suffer at all; I’m just now completely convinced that he could continue about his Arabians as much as he wanted, giving only the necessary explanations (F. M. Dostoevsky).

I. Not - particle

II. unchangeable, modal (semantic), negative.

I. only - particle

I. only - particle

II. unchangeable, modal (semantic), restrictive-exclusive.

According to school grammar, in this sentence the particle should also be parsed as follows:

I. would be a particle

II. unchangeable, formative, serves to form the conditional form of the verb.

Particle- one of the service parts of speech. It adds additional shades of meaning to the sentence.into words, phrases and sentences,and can also form word forms.The main role of particles (general grammatical meaning) is to introduce additional shades into the meanings of other words, groups of words or sentences. Particles clarify, highlight, and strengthen those words that are necessary for a more precise expression of the content: « Already the sky was breathing in autumn, Already the sun shone less often.» ( Pushkin A.S.) Already- a particle with an intensifying value.

Particles arose later than other parts of speech. By origin, particles are associated with different parts of speech: with adverbs ( only, only, barely, just, right and etc.); with verbs ( let, let, come on, let it be, it would be, after all, you see and etc.); with unions (oh, yes, and, well and etc.); with pronouns ( everything, it, what for, then, this, itself etc.), with interjections ( there, well and etc.). Some particles are not related to other parts of speech by origin: here you go and etc.

There are few particles in the Russian language. In terms of frequency of use, they are in the first hundred of the most used words (as well as prepositions, conjunctions and some pronouns). This hundred most frequent words includes 11 particles ( no, same, here, only, yet, already, well, neither, even, whether, after all ).

In their structure and functions, particles are similar to adverbs, conjunctions and interjections.

Particles differ from significant parts of speech in that they do not have lexical meanings, therefore particles are not members of a sentence, but can be part of sentences. Particles differ from prepositions and conjunctions in that they do not express grammatical relationships between words and sentences, i.e. the particle never connects anything.

When parsing the particle is highlighted together with the word it refers to or is not highlighted at all.

In the science of the Russian language there is no consensus on the classification of particles. Classifications may vary among different authors.

Particles are divided into 3 categories - semantic, negative And formative.
Form-forming particles include let's, yes, let's, let's, let's, let's, let's. Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are part of the verb form and the same part of the sentence as the verb: I wouldn’t know if he hadn’t told.

Particle- one of the service parts of speech. It adds additional shades of meaning to a sentence and can also form word forms.

Shaping particles: let, let, yes, let's - form together with the verb the form of the imperative mood, for example: let them run, let's make peace, let there be peace.

Particle would forms the conditional form of the verb: I would like, I would say, I would go.

Particles that introduce different shades of meaning are divided into

affirmative(yes, yes, exactly, yes),

negative(no, neither),

interrogative(really, really, really, really, really),

comparative(as, as if, as if, exactly, as if, as if, as if)

amplifiers(even, still, after all, already, everything, after all, simply, directly),

index fingers(there, this, here),

clarifying(exactly, just, truly, exactly)

excretory-restrictive(only, only, at least, entirely, exclusively)

exclamation marks(what the, that, how, well, after all),

expressing doubts(hardly, hardly).

Semantic and negative particles are presented below in table form

Particles must be distinguished from interjections Oh, well, ah, oh etc., used to express an intensifying connotation, which (unlike interjections) are not separated by commas (and are not accented).

Particles do not have lexical meanings (and in this way they differ from significant parts of speech) and do not express grammatical relations between words and sentences (and in this way they differ from auxiliary parts of speech).

Particles are:

Intensifying (even, even, then, and, neither, after all, etc.)

Restrictive (only, only, etc.)

Index (here, there, that)

Interrogative (whether, really, really, really, a)

Exclamation marks (what for, how, etc.)

Negative (not, not at all, far from, not at all)

Formative particles that serve to form the forms of words and new words occupy an intermediate position between function words and prefixes and suffixes:

1) particles if only, let, let, yes, it was, serving to express moods or shades of moods in verbs;

2) undefined particles: -something, -either, -something;

3) negative particle "not" serves not only to express negation, but also to form words with the opposite meaning. In this case, it acts as a prefix:

friend - foe, cheerful - sad, smart - stupid.

Separate writing of particles

1) Particles would (b), same (f), whether (l) written separately:

I would honor it if it were, here, which one, however, however, hardly, hardly.

The rule does not apply to cases where the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, also, really, or and etc.

2) Particles after all, there, here, even, they say written separately:

so, right there, like that, even him; brought it, they say.

Hyphenated spelling of particles

1) Particles are written with a hyphen -de, -ka, something- (koy-), (-kas - dial.), -either, -something, -s, -tka, -tko, -then:

you, she, here, here, look, someone, someone, someone, some, from somewhere, yes, well, look, so, somewhere, sometime, something.

Particle -de(colloquial) is used when conveying someone else’s speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they speak) and in the meaning of the particles “say”, “they say”:

And if I see that his execution is too small, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table.

My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a halt: so and so, allow me to leave, they say, it’s an expensive occasion, they say, since I’m a local resident, it’s just a stone’s throw from the yard.

2) Particle they say(colloquial) was formed by merging two words: de and say.

3) Particle -With(derived from the word sir) gives a connotation of servility and obsequiousness:

Chatsky. Lured by honors and nobility?

Molchalin. No, sir, everyone has their own talent...

Chatsky. You?

Molchalin. Two: moderation and accuracy.

If between the particle ko- (koi-) and the pronoun there is a preposition, then the whole combination is written apart:

from someone, on something, from someone, with someone.

4) Particle -yes(“still”, “however”, “nevertheless”, “in fact”, “eventually”) is written with a hyphen:

after the verbs - they persuaded him, he showed up;

after adverbs - truly, for a long time, again, again;

after particles - after all, quite, really, really.

In other cases, the particle is written separately:

The secretary, although he felt a slight dissatisfaction, was still glad to have such old women among the assets of the district.

But although the temptation was great, I still managed to overcome myself.

5) Particle -That a hyphen is added to pronouns and adverbs both to express uncertainty and to give an emotional coloring to the statement:

Why did your heart go bad?

Note 1. A combination like this (“namely”) is written separately before listing homogeneous members:

In mixed forests there are a variety of trees, such as birch, aspen, cedar, and pine.

Note 2. If the particle “-the” is inside a compound word written with a hyphen, then the hyphen is placed before the particle and omitted after it:

Bandage it crosswise (compare: crosswise);

Exactly, but that’s not the point (compare: exactly).

Note 3. If a particle that is written with a hyphen comes after another particle, then the hyphen is not written:

still, somewhere; with whom, supposedly, this does not happen (compare: after all, with whom, supposedly, this does not happen).

Exception: before the particle -s the hyphen is preserved: Would you like to take a bite, sir?

The particles “not” and “neither” are in the next post.