1 periodization of the history of ancient Greece. History of Ancient Greece - periods. Roman provinces in the 1st-2nd centuries. AD and their romanization

The history of ancient Greece is divided into three large eras: Helladic, Hellenic And Hellenistic. There are a lot of problems with accurately defining the boundaries of these eras. It is difficult to find a single criterion.

HELLADIC ERA . from 3000 BC e. to approximately 1200–1180 BC uh .

Problem one : the adjective “Helladic” is, of course, derived from the Greek. Hellas, “Helleda”, and this last one comes from the self-name of the Greeks - Hellenes, Hellenes. But the fact is that the Hellenes, as a special ethnic community, have been present on the territory of Greece only since the end of the 3rd millennium.

Problem two : The first civilization with a fairly high political, economic and visual culture arose among the mainland Greeks under the influence of the Cycladic civilization and the Minoan civilization. The connection between the Cretan Minoan culture and the culture of mainland Greece in the 2nd millennium was so close that some researchers speak of these two civilizations as the “Creto-Mycenaean civilization.” In this regard, another question arises: is it justified to separate the history of Hellenic mainland Greece in this era from the history of Minoan Crete?

The history of the Aegean civilizations ends duringXIIV. BC e. This century in science is usually called the period of catastrophes. During the 12th century. all the main Mycenaean palaces were destroyed in succession. The system of Achaean states with its unique economic and political structure disappears irrevocably.

THE HELLENIC AGE . The Dark Ages:XI – IXcenturies BC e. dark - because we do not have written sources. To study this period, we are left with mainly archaeological data. However, the information contained in Homer's poems can also be useful, but mainly for the final stage of the Dark Ages. That is why this stage is sometimes called the “Homeric era.” However, the Homeric epic was created in the 8th or even 7th century.

Vases are the most widespread archaeological material; archaeologists build their periodization of Greek history of this time, linking it to the styles of vase painting. A new style of vase painting is emerging. In the 11th century the so-called protogeometric style, which by the 9th century. transformed into a full-fledged geometric style.

Archaic period: VIII – VI bbBC e. This is the time of the formation of a special form of political and social existence among the Greeks - the polis, the time of the Great Greek colonization, the time of the birth of the Greek alphabet and, accordingly, Greek literature (first poetic, then prose genres).

Classicperiod: V century – 323 BC e. This is the time of the highest flowering of Greek culture and the Greek polis in its two main versions - aristocratic and democratic. This is the time of the search for political unification (Peloponnesian and Athenian unions). This is a time of grandiose military-political clashes: the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War. At the end of this period comes the time of policy crisis.

HELLENISTIC AGE From the end of the 4th century. after the collapse of the grandiose power created overnight by Alexander the Great, several very large monarchies arise (in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor). The new elites of these monarchies were formed mainly from the Greek-Macedonian ethnic symbiosis. Many Greek-Macedonian ideas and traditions are actively being introduced into the political structure of these states. Greek becomes the language of the ruling elite. Happens Hellenization East. Greece is already losing its independent significance, and above all in the political sense. World politics takes place not in Athens or Sparta, but in other cities.

The history of Hellenism sometimes begins with 336 BC. e. – i.e. since Alexander came to power, but still more often from 323 BC e.– i.e. from the moment of Alexander’s death, since it was after this that the process of forming a new geopolitical space begins.

There is also no single definitive date for the Hellenistic era, but for a different reason: the Hellenistic world eventually became part of the Roman empire, and the history of the Hellenes and their imitators became part of Roman history. But for different parts of the Hellenistic world this happened at different times.

Ticket No. 2 NATURE AND POPULATION OF ANCIENT GREECE

The climate of Greece is Mediterranean, subtropical. The rivers are low-water, artificial irrigation was not used in Greece. In Greece there was never a need to build large irrigation systems, as was the case in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The flora and fauna are diverse: until the classical era, even lions were found in some areas of Northern Greece. Greece is characterized by an amazing variety of landscapes. The air, especially in the mountains, is clean and transparent: visibility at 40-50 km is not unusual. The phenomenon of ancient Greek art is largely explained by the perception of the surrounding world by the ancient Greeks.

POPULATION OF ANCIENT GREECE: ETHNIC AND LINGUISTIC PROBLEMS

Ancient Greece was inhabited by a people that we call ancient Greek, because these people spoke various dialects of the ancient Greek language. This language is one of the Indo-European languages. However, in its vocabulary and in its morphology, the ancient Greek language reveals very significant elements of alien - non-Indo-European - origin. For example, these alien elements include words formed using characteristic non-Indo-European suffixes: -nth- (-nf-: Tiryns, hyacinth), -ss- (thalassa, narcissus), etc.

From these facts we can conclude that various elements took part in the process of formation of the ancient Greek language (and, therefore, the ancient Greek ethnos). Among these components, the Indo-European layer played a key role (let’s call it Proto-Greek), but it is also impossible to underestimate the role of the non-Indo-European so-called. pre-Greek substrate.

At the same time, based on some linguistic features, we can assume with a high degree of probability that I.-E. The (proto-Greek) layer was alien to the Southern Balkans region, and the non-Indo-European layer (pre-Greek substrate) was a local (aboriginal, native) layer. In other words, before the appearance of the Hellenes in Greece, this vast territory was inhabited by tribes who spoke some non-Indo-European languages. Moreover, these languages most likely had a more developed structure and a richer vocabulary than the Proto-Greek language.

Several important problems arise:

Where did the proto-Greeks come to the Aegean region from?

When and by what routes did the ancient Greeks arrive here?

What was the pre-Greek substrate?

What was the map of dialects of the ancient Greek language during the Hellenic period of history and how was this map formed?

Where did the proto-Greeks come to the Aegean region from?

the original region from where the proto-Greeks appeared in the Aegean Sea basin was the region of the Danube Lowland. From here, the ancestors of the future Greeks moved along the western coast of the Black Sea, crossed into Thrace and Macedonia and then moved south past Olympus. This route seems most likely today, thanks to the archaeological survey of these areas, but also thanks to the analysis of various myths preserved by the later Greeks.

When did the Greek language and Greek ethnicity form?

...arrived in the Hellenic region from the north c. 2000. The main argument is a well-documented cultural gap for this time, found in many places in mainland Greece. Among the new elements of culture, unknown to the population of the region before 2000, are two main facts: - firstly, the appearance of ceramics made on a potter’s wheel; Particularly noteworthy is the so-called gray Minya ceramics - secondly, the appearance of the domesticated horse

What was the pre-Greek substrate?

Thus, we know from the statements of ancient writers that before the Hellenes, tribes called Pelasgians, Leleges and Carians lived on the territory of Greece, the Cyclades and on the coast of Asia.

Pelasgians. A tribe that later Greeks considered their predecessors on the territory of Greece. Lelegi. Mentioned together with the Pelasgians, but it is impossible to identify them.

Carians. A pre-Indo-European people who occupied S.W. in historical times. corner of M. Asia and gave the name to this country (Karia). It is obvious that previously they, along with the Leleges and Pelasgians, also lived in the Cyclades and in some areas of Greece. According to Homer, the Carians were allies of Troy during the Trojan War. In later times they were in close contact with the Greeks.

Ticket No. 3 CRITO-MYCENEAN CIVILIZATION

Around the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. The island of Crete became the center of the emergence of civilization in Greece. The Greeks of classical times had a rather vague idea of Crete's past. There was a legend about the terrible man-bull Minotaur. Crete in those distant times was ruled by King Minos, who was the first to establish “thalassocracy” - power over the seas.

In the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Huge structures were erected on the island - palaces, as they began to be called.

History of Crete III - II millennia BC. e. should be seen in the context of the Aegean civilizations. Modern researchers highlight the following periods in the history of this Cretan (Minoan) civilization.

Early Minoan period: 3000 – 2100 BC e. The name "Minoan" was coined in the beginning. XX century English explorer Arthur Evans, Evans came up with the name “Minoans” for him, deriving it from Minos, who, according to ancient myths, was once the king of Crete in ancient times. From a technological point of view, this was the Copper-Stone Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age (Early Bronze Age begins c. 2400).

Middle Minoan period: 2100 – 1580 BC e. Bronze technology reached its peak during this time. OK. 2000 Amazing structures, now known as Ancient Palaces, appear for the first time on Crete. This was probably due to the formation of the first government structures. Hieroglyphic writing appears. OK. 1750 emergence of a new writing system: the so-called. Linear (syllabary))

The chronology of Minoan culture from the very beginning was built by its researchers on the basis of the chronology of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Because of this correlation of Cretan history with Egyptian history, scholars chose 1580 BC. e. as the last date for the Middle Minoan period (SM): the fact is that around this time the period of Hyksos domination in Egypt ended, and the pharaohs of the famous XVIII dynasty came to power (the founder of the dynasty is Ahmes I). Cretan ceramics, which belongs to the SM period, are found in the same layers with objects of Egyptian origin, which date back to the time of the Hyksos. Cretan ceramics, which replaced SM products, are no longer archaeologically connected with the Hyksos era. Consequently, archaeologists end the SM period with 1580 BC. e.

Late Minoan period: 1580 – 1180 BC uh . It is divided into three stages:

* PMIstage: 1580 – 1450gg. BC uh. This is, of course, the culmination of the Minoan civilization, the time of its greatest prosperity and power

* PM II stage: 1450 – 1400. BC e. OK. 1450 Fundamentally new elements appear in the culture of Crete, of which two main ones should be noted:

1) a new writing system appears - the so-called. Linear B(used for entries in Greek);

2) in the fine arts (primarily in vase painting), Cretan naturalism is replaced by a “palace style”, which is characterized by a tendency towards schematism, formalization of drawing, and symmetry.

* PM III stage: 1400 – 1180. BC e. OK. 1400 Crete completely loses its former grandeur and significance, the palaces are no longer restored, and the entire island turns into a seedy province of the mainland Greek civilization, which flourished precisely during this period.

The real reason for the desolation of the Cretan palaces was the invasion of the Achaean Greeks, who invaded Crete from the middle of the 15th century. The palace of Knossos was destroyed and never rebuilt. Crete became the outskirts of the Greek world. However, the significance of the Cretan ("Minoan" - as it was named after the legendary king Minos) civilization for Greece was great. The Cretans established trade relations with Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, and for the first time in the Aegean basin they created a large navy. Even in Egypt, the “country of Keftiu” (i.e., the Cretan kingdom) was considered a powerful power. But from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Balkan Greece becomes the political and economic leader of the Aegean Basin.

The largest center became Mycenae - a city in Argolis, in the north of the Peloponnese, and therefore the civilization created by the Achaeans is called Mycenaean. Less significant centers of Mycenaean civilization existed in the 15th – 12th centuries. BC e. in Tiryns and Pylos (Peloponnese), Athens, Thebes and Orkhomenes (Central Greece) and in some other places.

The Mycenaean civilization existed until the 12th century. By the time around 1220 BC. e. refers to the campaign against Troy undertaken by the Achaeans led by the Mycenaean king Agamemnon. This campaign was partially described many centuries later in the poem "Iliad", which was attributed to the blind aed ("singer") Homer. In Europe, for a long time they did not believe in the reality of the Trojan War, and only archaeological excavations by Heinrich Schliemann in the 19th century confirmed the existence of Troy.

The history of the Mycenaean civilization chronologically represents one of the later periods of the Hellenic era. The Hellenic era is generally divided into the following periods:

Early Helladic period: 3000 – 2000 BC e.

Middle Helladic period: 2000 – 1580 BC uh

Late Helladic period: 1580 – 1180 BC e.

4.1. THE DEATH OF THE MYCENEAN CIVILIZATION AND THE PROBLEM OF THE DORIAN MIGRATION

It was believed that the main culprits for the disappearance of the Achaean Greek civilization were other Greeks who were present before the 12th century. BC e. somewhere on the periphery of the Mycenaean world, less culturally developed, but more warlike Dorians. The appearance of the Dorians in Greece in myths is associated with the so-called. return of the Heraclides. Eurystheus, after the death of Hercules, pursued the sons of the hero.

XIII century BC e. It was an unusually troubling time. The inhabitants of the palaces lived in an atmosphere of fear. This is confirmed by the following facts: old fortifications are being restored; construction of the Cyclopean wall on Isthmus begins.

The newcomers did not leave any obvious traces of their archaeological culture. We cannot say anything about the route taken by these conquerors, nor about the direction in which they disappeared. One gets the feeling that the aliens did not want to settle in the Peloponnese, but, having destroyed what was possible to destroy, went somewhere further.

the significant numerical superiority of the Dorians over the Achaeans seems very doubtful. It is unlikely that the Dorians were the culprits of the series of disasters.

According to Schachermayer, in the second half. 13th century here a huge tangle formed, a large tribal coalition, which, like an avalanche, initially invaded the territory of Balkan Greece. Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos and other centers of Achaean civilization fell under its blows. Part of this avalanche lingered in the Peloponnese, forming something like barbarian kingdoms, the rest moved on.

Schachermayer's main argument: finds of a previously unknown type of polished ceramics, not made on a potter's wheel, spearheads, knives and pins, which, apparently, are of northern origin. It was these scattered finds that became the basis for the grandiose picture painted by Schachermayer.

Alternative hypotheses, as a rule, explain the fall of the Mycenaean civilization by its internal crisis, which occurred precisely at the turn of the 13th–12th centuries. BC e. Different researchers see the reasons for this crisis in different phenomena and factors:

By the end of the 13th century. BC e. in the Peloponnese the supply of uncultivated land was exhausted;

Uprisings and revolts of the dependent population;

Internecine wars;

Climatic concept of the American researcher Carpenter..

The problem remains controversial to this day.

The last traces of Mycenaean culture and civilization are disappearing from Balkan Greece and from the islands of the so-called. Submycenaean period, which falls at the end. XII – first half. XI century BC e. This is a time of terrible decline and desolation of the entire country. The standard of living and culture is falling sharply. The number of settlements known to archaeologists, in which during this period there was still some glimmer of life, is reduced even more.

At this time, Dorian tribes gradually began to penetrate into Greece from the north. It is difficult to say exactly when this infiltration begins and what route they took. Most likely this movement falls on the second floor. XI and entire X century

The aliens simply occupied empty territories. Of course, the Dorian advance across Greece was characterized by a gradual penetration into more and more new areas. Of course, such “infiltration” can in no way be called an organized conquest.

4.2. "DARK AGES"

As a result of the Dorian invasions at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 11th centuries. BC e. Greek society was thrown back in a social sense to primitiveness. The Mycenaean civilization disappeared, writing disappeared, and the so-called “Dark Ages” began (XI-IX centuries BC, some researchers extend them until the middle of the 8th century). It is possible to reconstruct the processes that took place in Greek society at that time using archaeological data, also drawing on information from the poems of Homer.

The Dorian invasion was only part of the tribal movements during this period. The Dorians passed through all of Greece and settled in most of the Peloponnese. The autochthonous (local) population remained in the mountainous regions of the Peloponnese - Arcadia and Achaia, as well as in Attica and on the island of Euboea. At the same time, the Greeks were settling the islands of the Aegean archipelago and the western coast of Asia Minor. The Dorians settled on the islands of Crete and Rhodes and in southern Asia Minor, the Ionians (descendants of the Achaeans) settled the islands of Chios, Samos and the central part of the western coast of Asia Minor, and the Aeolians, another Greek tribe, settled on the island of Lesbos and the northern part of the Asia Minor coast Aegean Sea. The Ionians, Dorians and Aeolians spoke different dialects of Greek.

The modern world owes a lot ancient Greece. This relatively small state had a huge influence on the development of all areas of human life. Take, for example, myths, which are a reflection of human life, both in those times and today. Ideas about the world - about man, medicine, politics, art, literature - on a global scale originated in Greece. This state was located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Accordingly, such a relatively small territory accommodated a small number of population, but, as Alexander the Great said, “One Greek is worth a thousand barbarians.” Greece stood out among other states - Babylonia, Egypt and Persia - and not without reason.

Map of ancient Greece

Ancient times of Ancient Greece

Territory of Ancient Greece It is customary to roughly divide it into three parts: Southern, Middle and Northern. In the southern part was Laconia, better known as Sparta. Athens, the main city of Greece, was located in the middle part of the state, along with such areas as Attica, Aetolia and Phocis. This part was separated from the North by almost impassable mountains and separated Athens and Thessaly, which today is itself a major historical center.

About the population of Ancient Greece can be judged by numerous examples of art that have been preserved almost in their original form - these are sculptures, frescoes and elements of painting. In any museum in the world you will find a hall of ancient Greek art, where you will see many images of tall, slender people with an ideal physique, with fair skin and dark curly hair. Ancient historians call them Pelasgians - the people who inhabited the islands of the Aegean Sea in the 3rd millennium BC. Despite the fact that their occupations were no different from those of other ancient peoples and included cattle breeding and agriculture, it should be noted that their land was difficult to cultivate and required the use of special skills.

The peoples of Greece and their development

Those who inhabited Greece almost five thousand years ago were expelled from their lands exactly in the same millennium in which they appeared. The reason for this was the Achaeans who invaded from the north, whose state was also located on the island of the Peloponnese with its capital in Mycenae. This conquest was epochal in nature, as it marked the beginning of the Achaean civilization, which suffered the same sad fate - at the end of the 13th century BC, just as the Achaeans invaded the Greek lands, the Dorians came to this territory. Unfortunately, the conquerors destroyed almost all the cities and the entire Akhian population, although they themselves, at the same time, were at a lower stage of development of civilization. This fact could not but affect the culture of Ancient Greece. The ancient writing created by the Pelasgians was forgotten, not to mention the fact that the construction and development of tools stopped. This period, which is deservedly called “dark,” lasted neither more nor less from the 12th to the 9th centuries AD. Among the cities, Athens and Sparta still stood out, where two antagonistic societies were located.

So, in Lakonica (Sparta) the governors were two kings who ruled, passing on their power by inheritance. However, despite this, real power was in the hands of the elders, who made laws and were involved in judging. The love of luxury in Sparta was severely persecuted, and the main task of the elders was to prevent class stratification of society, for which each Greek family received from the state an allotment of land, which it had to cultivate without the right to receive additional territories. Soon the Spartans were forbidden to engage in trade, agriculture and crafts; the slogan was proclaimed that “the occupation of every Spartan is war,” which was supposed to fully provide the population of Laconia with everything necessary for life. The morals of the Spartans are eloquently evidenced by the fact that warriors could be expelled from their troops only because he did not fully eat his portion of food at a common meal, which indicated that he dined on the side. Moreover, a wounded Spartan had to die silently on the battlefield, without showing unbearable pain.

The main rival of Sparta was the current capital of Greece - Athens. This city was a center of the arts, and the people who inhabited it were the complete opposite of the rude and tough Spartans. Nevertheless, despite the ease and carefreeness of life, it was here that the word “tyrant” appeared. Initially it meant “ruler,” but when the authorities of Athens began to engage in outright robbery of the population, this word acquired the connotation that it has to this day. Peace was brought to the devastated city by King Solon, a wise and kind ruler who did a lot to improve the lives of the townspeople.

The 6th century brought new trials to the inhabitants of Greece - the danger came from the Persians, who quickly conquered Egypt, Media and Babylonia. In the face of the Persian power, the peoples of Greece united, forgetting about centuries-old strife. Of course, the center of the army was the Spartans, who devoted their lives to military affairs. The Athenians, in turn, began building a flotilla. Darius underestimated the power of the Greeks and lost the very first battle, which is immortalized in history by the fact that a joyful messenger ran from Marathon to Athens to convey the good news of victory, and, having covered 40 km, fell dead. It is with that event in mind that athletes run the “marathon distance.” Xerxes, the son of Darius, having enlisted the support and help of the conquered states, nevertheless lost a number of important battles and abandoned any attempts to conquer Greece. Thus, Greece became the most influential state, which gave it a number of privileges, especially to Athens, which became the capital of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Sparta united with Athens the next time in the face of the Macedonian conqueror Philip II, who, unlike Darius, quickly broke the resistance of the Greeks, establishing power over all areas of the state except Sparta, which refused to submit. Thus, the Classical period of development of the Hellenic states ended and the rise of Greece as part of Macedonia began. Thanks to Alexander the Great, Greeks and Macedonians by 400 BC became the sovereign masters of all of Western Asia. The Hellenistic era ended in 168 BC, when large-scale conquests of the Roman Empire began.

The role of Greek civilization in the history of the development of the world

Historians agree that cultural world development would have been impossible without the heritage that Ancient Greece left us. It was here that the fundamental knowledge about the universe that modern science uses was laid. The first philosophical concepts were formulated here, defining the basis for the development of spiritual values of all humanity. The Greek philosopher Aristotle laid the foundations for ideas about the material and immaterial world, Greek athletes became the first champions of the first Olympic Games. Any science or field of art is somehow connected with this great Ancient state - be it theater, literature, painting or sculpture. “The Iliad” is the main work that has survived to this day; it very vividly and colorfully tells about the historical events of those times, about the way of life of the ancient Eleans, and, more importantly, is dedicated to real events. The famous Greek thinker Herodotus contributed to the development of history, whose works were devoted to the Greco-Persian wars. The contribution of Pythagoras and Archimedes to the development of mathematics cannot be overestimated. Moreover, the ancient Greeks were the authors of numerous inventions, which were used primarily during military operations.

The Greek theater deserves special attention, which was an open area with a round structure for the choir and a stage for artists. This architecture meant the creation of excellent acoustics, and spectators sitting even in the far rows could hear all the cues. It is noteworthy that the actors hid their faces under masks, which were divided into comic and tragic. Reverently revering their gods, the Greeks created their statues and sculptures, which still amaze with their beauty and perfection.

Special place Ancient Greece in world ancient history makes it one of the most mysterious and amazing states in the ancient world. The progenitor of science and art, Greece to this day attracts the attention of everyone who is interested in world history.

Periods of ancient Greece. History of development

Early period (1050-750 BC)

Following the final literate civilization, the last of the glorious civilizations of the Aegean Bronze Age, mainland Greece and the islands off its coast entered an era called by some historians "Dark Age". However, strictly speaking, this term rather characterizes a break in historical information that relates to the time interval that began around 1050 BC. e., rather than the lack of knowledge or historical experience among the then population of Hellas, although writing was lost. In fact, it was precisely at this time, the time of transition into the Iron Age, that the political, aesthetic and literary features that were then characteristic of classical Hellas began to appear. Local leaders, who called themselves pari, ruled small, closely connected communities - the forerunners of the ancient Greek city-states. The next stage in the development of painted ceramics is obvious, which has become simpler in shape, but at the same time stronger; her appearance, as evidenced by vessel shown on the right, acquired new grace, harmony and proportionality, which became the hallmarks of later Greek art.

Taking advantage vague memories, Trojans and others, wandering singers composed stories about gods and mere mortals, giving poetic imagery to Greek mythology. By the end of this period, Greek-speaking tribes borrowed the alphabet and adapted it to their language, which made it possible to record many tales that had long been preserved in oral tradition: the best among them that have come down to us are the Homeric epics " 776 BC e., is considered to be the beginning of the subsequent continuous rise of Greek culture.

Archaic (Archaic) period (750-500 BC)

In the 8th century, prompted population and wealth growth Emigrants from ancient Greece spread throughout the Mediterranean in search of new agricultural land and trade opportunities. Greek settlers in foreign countries, however, became more than just subjects cities that founded colonies, but separate, autonomous political entities. The spirit of independence that possessed the settlers, as well as the need for joint action to maintain each community, gave rise to such a political unit as the polis. Throughout the Greek world there were supposedly up to 700 similar city-states. The foreign cultures with which Hellas came into contact during this period of expansion affected the Greeks in a variety of ways.

Geometric pottery painting gave way to oriental-style animal and plant designs, as well as detailed mythological scenes of the new black-figure style of vase painting (see photo gallery below). Artists working with stone, clay, wood and bronze began to create monumental human sculptures. Typical of archaic statue of Kouros(photo left) bears clear traces of Egyptian influence, but at the same time demonstrates an emerging desire for symmetry, lightness and realism. In the seventh century The first truly Greek temples appear, decorated with extended friezes and columns of the Doric order (see photo gallery below). Lyrical and elegiac poetry, deeply personal and emotionally rich, is replacing the stilted verses of the past. The development of trade contributed to the widespread spread of coinage invented by the Lydians. On the mainland at the same time Sparta introduces a political system that emphasizes strict government and discipline, and as a result becomes the largest and most powerful city-state of the period. Athens On the contrary, they change and codify laws, caring for justice and equality, open access to governing bodies to an increasing number of citizens and lay the foundations of democracy.

Classical period (500-323 BC)

The classical period in ancient Greece, when it was incredibly fast blossomed arts, literature, philosophy and politics, limited by the time of wars with two foreign powers - Persia and Macedonia. Hellenic victory over the Persians gave rise to a new spirit of cooperation between the various city-states and Athens, whose fleet played a decisive role in ensuring a favorable turnaround in the fight against the so-called barbarians. The tribute from the allies to the Athenian treasury in exchange for military protection provided the Athenians with the opportunity to increase their already significant wealth and guaranteed the city political, cultural and economic supremacy throughout the Mediterranean. Almost all citizens of Athens, regardless of financial status, were provided with access to elected positions, and they received remuneration for the performance of relevant duties. At public expense, sculptors, architects and playwrights worked on works that still remain the highest creative achievement of mankind. Shown, for example, on the right is bronze Zeus statue 213 centimeters high gives a concentrated idea of the skill of the artists of classical Hellas (ancient Greece), who reproduced the human body in their works with extraordinary dynamism. Greek philosophers, historians, and natural scientists left examples of rational theoretical analysis.

In 431, the long-standing enmity between Athens and Sparta resulted in a war that lasted almost 30 years and ended in the defeat of the Athenians. Decades of continuous fighting led to a weakening of political influence in many city-states, where brutal infighting continued. Calculating and ambitious Macedonian king Philip II managed to benefit from such chaos and soon became the master of the entire territory of ancient Greece. Philip failed to complete the construction of the empire, he was killed, and his son ascended the throne Alexander. Just 12 years later, Alexander the Great (Macedonian) died, but left behind a power stretching from the Adriatic to Media (see photo gallery below).

Hellenistic period (323-31 BC)

From the ruins of Alexander's empire, after almost 50 years of fierce struggle for his inheritance, three major powers emerged: Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state, stretching from modern Turkey to Afghanistan. It's amazing, that from the Macedonian capital of Pella in the west to Ai-Khanum in the east, the language, literature, political institutions, fine arts, architecture and philosophy in the cities and settlements that arose as a result of Alexander's campaigns remained unambiguously Greek after his death. Subsequent kings emphasized their kinship with Hellas, especially with Alexander: the picture on the left shows Thracian silver coin, in which he is depicted with the ram horns of Zeus-Amun - a god with roots in both the East and the West. Possessing a common language, influenced by constant trade contacts, preserving written texts and attracting numerous travelers, the Hellenistic world became more and more cosmopolitan.

Education and enlightenment flourished, libraries were created - among them was Great Library of Alexandria, which contained about half a million volumes. But the Greek ruling classes refused to allow ordinary subjects into their ranks, and the vast new kingdoms were everywhere shaken by internal turmoil. Steadily weakening and impoverished Macedonia in 168 BC. e. came under domination. One after another, the provincial governors of the Seleucid Empire declared themselves independent, forming many small states with a dynastic form of government. Of the kingdoms into which Alexander's empire broke up, Ptolemaic Egypt still stood as a bastion. Cleopatra VII, the last of this line (and the only one who learned the language of the subject population), committed suicide when the Romans were victorious at Actium. However, although they managed to subjugate the entire Mediterranean, the dominance of the Latins did not yet mean the end of Greek influence: the Romans absorbed the culture of ancient Greece and perpetuated the Hellenic heritage in a way that the Greeks themselves could not.

Ancient Greece is part of the ancient world, whose culture developed in the Mediterranean basin, the Black Sea region and neighboring countries in the period from the 3rd millennium BC. until the middle of the 5th century AD e.

The complex and diverse history of Ancient Greece is usually divided into several periods, according to which history is built

Creto-Mycenaean(late III-II millennium BC). Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state formations. Development of navigation. Establishing trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East. The emergence of original writing. For Crete and mainland Greece at this stage, different periods of development are distinguished, since on the island of Crete, where the non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which underwent at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. conquest of the Achaean Greeks.

Minoan civilization (Crete):

Early Minoan period(XXX-XXIII centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations, the beginning of the development of metals, the beginnings of crafts, the development of navigation, a relatively high level of agrarian relations.

Middle Minoan period(XXII-XVIII centuries BC). Also known as the period of "old" or "early" palaces. The emergence of early state formations in different parts of the island. Construction of monumental palace complexes in several regions of Crete. Early forms of writing.

Late Minoan period(XVII-XII centuries BC). The heyday of the Minoan civilization, the unification of Crete, the creation of the maritime power of King Minos, the wide scope of Crete’s trading activities in the Aegean Sea basin, the heyday of monumental construction (“new” palaces in Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos). Active contacts with ancient Eastern states. Natural disaster of the mid-15th century. BC e. becomes the cause of the decline of the Minoan civilization, which created the preconditions for the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans.

Hellenic civilization (Balkan Greece):

Early Helladic period(XXX-XXI centuries BC). The dominance of tribal relations among the pre-Greek population in Balkan Greece. The appearance of the first large settlements and proto-palace complexes.

Middle Helladic period(XX-XVII centuries BC). The settlement of the first waves of Greek speakers - the Achaeans - in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, which was accompanied by a slight decrease in the overall level of socio-economic development of Greece. The beginning of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Achaeans.

Late Helladic period(XVI-XII centuries BC) or Mycenaean civilization. The emergence of an early class society among the Achaeans, the formation of a productive economy in agriculture, the emergence of a number of state entities with centers in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, etc., the formation of original writing, the flourishing of Mycenaean culture. The Achaeans subjugate Crete and destroy the Minoan civilization. In the 12th century. BC e. a new tribal group invades Greece - the Dorians, the death of the Mycenaean statehood.

Polisny(XI-IV centuries BC).

Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. The formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. The highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.

Homeric(pre-polis) period, “dark ages” (XI-IX centuries BC). The final destruction of the remnants of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class ones, the formation of unique pre-polis social structures.

Archaic Greece(VIII-VI centuries BC). Formation of policy structures. Great Greek Colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of Hellenic society. The introduction of iron into all areas of production, economic growth. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, the spread of elements of private property.

Classical Greece(V-IV centuries BC). The flourishing of the economy and culture of Greek city-states. Reflecting the aggression of the Persian world power, raising national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic structure, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of Macedonian aggression.

Hellenistic(IV-I centuries BC).

The short-term establishment of the world power of Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.

I. Early class societies and states in Crete and the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula (late III-II millennium BC).

1. Early Minoan period (XXX-XXIII centuries BC): the dominance of pre-class clan relations.

2. Middle Minoan period (XXII–XVIII centuries BC): the decomposition of clan relations and social stratification of Cretan society, the emergence of the first state formations.

3. Late Minoan period (mid-18th–12th centuries BC): the unification of Crete, the flourishing of Cretan statehood and culture, the creation of a Cretan maritime power, the conquest of Crete by the Achaeans and the decline of Crete. History of early class societies and states of mainland (Achaean) Greece:

1. Early Helladic period (XXX–XXI centuries BC): the dominance of primitive relations, the emergence of the first large settlements, the pre-Greek population.

2. Middle Helladic period (XX–XVII centuries BC): settlement of the Greco-Achaeans in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, decomposition of tribal relations, formation of elements of social stratification of Achaean society.

3. Late Helladic (or Mycenaean) period (XVI-XII centuries BC): early class societies and the first state formations of the Achaean Greeks, the emergence of writing, the rise of the Mycenaean civilization and its decline.

II. Formation and flourishing of Greek city-states. Classic slavery system. Maturity of Greek civilization (XI–IV centuries BC):

1. Homeric (pre-polis) period (XI–IX centuries BC): tribal movements in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, the destruction of the Mycenaean states, the resuscitation of tribal relations, the formation of the first elements of the polis structure.

2. Archaic period (VIII–VI centuries BC): formation of society and state in the form of policies. The great Greek colonization and development by the Greeks of the Aegean, coastal areas of the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

3. Classical period (V-IV centuries BC): the heyday of the polis system and Greek civilization.

III. Ancient Greece and the Middle East in the Hellenistic era (30s of the 4th century BC - 30 of the 1st century BC):

1. Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great and the formation of the system of Hellenistic states (30s of the 4th century BC - 80s of the 3rd century BC).

2. The functioning of Hellenistic societies and states (80s of the 3rd century BC - mid-2nd century BC).

3. The crisis of the Hellenistic system, the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Rome in the west and Parthia in the east.

Chronological table

The most important dates in socio-economic and political history.

End of the 3rd millennium BC e. - penetration of Greek tribes (Achaeans) into Southern Greece. 2000–1700 BC e. - the period of the “old” palaces in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, Kato Zakro in Crete.

1700–1400 BC e. - the period of “new” palaces. Palace (“labyrinth”) of Minos at Knossos. XVI - first half of the XV century. - Cretan maritime power. The rise of Cretan civilization. BC e.

Mid-15th century BC e. - capture of Crete by the Achaeans. XVI century BC e. - shaft tombs of the Achaean leaders in Mycenae.

XV–XIII centuries BC e. - the rise of the Mycenaean civilization.

1240–1230 BC e. - Trojan War (accepted date).

XI century BC e. - penetration of the Dorian tribes into the Peloponnese.

776 BC e. - holding the first Olympic Games.

754 BC e. - the beginning of compiling a list of ephors in Sparta.

Around 750 BC e. - the first Greek colony on the island of Pitekoussa.

733 BC e. - Founding of Syracuse.

Second half of the 8th century. BC e. - First Messenian War.

683 BC e. - the beginning of maintaining a list of senior officials - archons in Athens. 632 BC e. - Kilon's Troubles in Athens.

657–627 BC e. - Tyranny of Cypselus in Corinth.

Second half of the 7th century. BC e. - Second Messenian War.

627–585 BC e. - The tyranny of Periander in Corinth.

621 BC e. - Legislation of Draco in Athens.

594 BC e. - Solon's reforms in Athens.

560–510 - the tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons in Athens.

Around 550 BC e. - creation of the Peloponnesian League.

537–522 BC e. - The tyranny of Polycrates on the island of Samos.

508–500 BC e. - the laws of Cleisthenes and the reform of the political system in Athens. 500–449 BC e. - Greco-Persian wars.

500–494 BC e. - Greek uprising in Miletus and the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars.

493 BC e. - Themistocles - Archon of Athens.

490 BC e. - battle of the Greeks with the Persians at Marathon.

480 BC e. - Xerxes' campaign against Greece, the battles of Thermopylae, Artemisium and Salamis.

480 BC e. - Battle of Himera, defeat of the Carthaginian allies of the Persians.

480–438 - reign of the Archeanactid family in the Bosporus.

479 BC e. - defeat of the Persians at Plataea.

478–404 BC e. - First Athenian Maritime League.

469–468 BC e. - victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Eurymedon.

464 BC e. - revolt of the helots in Messenia (Third Messenian War).

462 BC e. - Ephialtes reforms in Athens.

459–454 BC e. - Athenian squadron in Egypt.

454 BC e. - destruction of the Athenian fleet in Egypt.

457–446 BC e. - Lesser Peloponnesian War. Athens against Sparta and Thebes.

451 BC e. - Pericles' law on Athenian citizenship.

449 BC e. - Callia's world. The end of the Greco-Persian wars.

447 BC e. - formation of the Boeotian League led by Thebes.

444–429 BC e. - Pericles - the first strategist of Athens.

443 BC e. - foundation of a pan-Greek colony in Thurii.

457 BC e. - The Athenians capture the island of Aegina.

440 BC e. - uprising of the Athenian allies on the island of Samos.

437 BC e. - Athenian squadron led by Pericles in the Black Sea.

431–404 BC e. - Peloponnesian War.

431–421 BC e. - 1st period of the war. Archidamus' War.

427 BC e. - rebellion against Athenian rule in Lesbos.

425 BC e. - capture of Sphacteria by the Athenians.

422 BC e. - Battle of Amphipolis.

422–21 BC e. - foundation of Chersonese Tauride.

421 BC e. - Peace of Nicias, end of the Archidamic War.

419–399 BC e. - reign of Archelaus in Macedonia.

415–404 BC e. - 2nd period of the Pelopennesian War.

415–413 BC e. - the Sicilian expedition of the Athenians and its defeat.

412 BC e. - allied relations between Sparta and Persia.

411 BC e. - oligarchic coup in Athens, abolition of the democratic constitution.

406 BC e. - Battle of the Arginus Islands. The last victory of the Athenians.

06–367 BC e. - the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder in Syracuse. Creation of the Syracusan territorial power.

405 BC e. - defeat of the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami.

404 BC e. - capture of Athens by the Spartans. End of the Peloponnesian War.

404–403 BC e. - the tyranny of the pro-Spartan group of the Thirty in Athens.

403 BC e. - the fall of the tyranny of the “thirty” and the restoration of the democratic system in Athens.

400 BC e. - the law of the Spartan ephor Epitadeus on freedom of wills.

399 BC e. - Kinadon conspiracy in Sparta.

399–394 BC e. - war between Sparta and Persia in Asia Minor.

398–392 BC e. - War of Syracuse with Carthage. Victories of Dionysius I.

395–387 BC e. - Corinthian War.

395 BC e. - defeat of the Spartans at Haliart in Boeotia.

394 BC e. - victory of the Spartans at Coronea in Boeotia.

393 BC e. - restoration of the system of Athenian fortifications (“long walls”).

392 BC e. - outbreak of social struggle in Corinth, massacre of oligarchs.

389–349 BC e. - reign of the Bosporan king Leukon I, the heyday of Bosporus.

387 BC e. - Antalkidov, or Tsarsky, world. End of the Corinthian War. Persian intervention in Greek affairs.

382–379 BC e. - war of Sparta against the Chalkidian Union.

379 BC e. - democratic revolution in Thebes. The beginning of the rise of Thebes in Greece.

378–338 BC e. - Second Athens Maritime League.

376 BC e. - victory of the Athenian fleet over the Spartan fleet off the island of Naxos.

371 BC e. - conclusion of peace between Athens and Sparta. Recognition of the Second Athenian Maritime League by Sparta.

371 BC e. - victory of the Boeotians over the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra.

371 BC e. - uprising of the poor in Argos (the so-called Argive “wandering”).

368 BC e. - Treaty of Friendship between Athens and Dionysius I.

367 BC e. - formation of the Aetolian Union.

Around 365 BC e. - foundation of the city of Megalopolis as the center of the Arcadian Union.

362 BC e. - defeat of the Spartan troops at Mantinea. Dissolution of the Peloponnesian League.

360–357 BC e. - war of Athens against the Odrysian kingdom of the Thracians.

359–336 BC e. - reign of Philip II in Macedonia. Transformation of Macedonia into the strongest state in the Aegean basin.

357–355 BC e. - war of the Athenian allies against Athens. The defeat of Athens and the virtual collapse of the Second Athenian Maritime League.

355–346 BC e. - Holy War in Greece.

352 BC e. - Philip's victory over the Phocians in Thessaly. Philip's intervention in the Holy War.

348 BC e. - Philip's destruction of Olynthos and the destruction of the Chalkidian Union.

346 BC e. - end of the Holy War. Philocratic world. Inclusion of Macedonia into the Delphic Amphictyony.

345–334 BC e. - Timoleon's activities to restore democracy in Syracuse.

338 BC e. - Battle of Chaeronea. Victory of Philip II over a coalition of Greek cities.

337 BC e. - Pan-Greek Congress in Corinth. Establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Greece.

336 BC e. - Philip II's preparations for a campaign against Persia. Assassination of Philip II.

336–323 BC e. - reign of Philip's son Alexander the Great.

334–324 BC e. - Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great. The creation of Alexander's world power.

334 BC e. - Battle of Granicus.

333 BC e. - defeat of the Persian troops at Issus.

332–331 BC e. - Alexander's stay in Egypt. Founding of Alexandria.

331 BC e. - Alexander's victory over the main forces of Persia at Gaugamela (Arbela). Capture of Babylonia, Elam and Persvda.

331 BC e. - siege of Olbia by the Macedonian troops of Zopyrion.

329 BC e. - the conspiracy of Philotas and the defeat of the opposition in the Macedonian army against Alexander.

329–328 BC e. - Alexander's conquest of Central Asia. Movement of local tribes under the leadership of Spitamen.

327–325 BC e. - Alexander's conquest of Northwestern India.

324–323 BC e. - Alexander in Babylon. Carrying out reforms to strengthen the unity of the “world” power.

323 BC e. - death of Alexander.

323–281 BC e. - wars of the successor commanders (diadochi) of Alexander the Great. Creation of the system of Hellenistic states.

321 BC e. - agreement in Triparadis (Syria) between the diadochi on the division of spheres of influence.

317–307 BC e. - the tyranny of Demetrius of Phalerus in Athens.

316–287 BC e. - Agathocles' tyranny in Syracuse. Revival of the Syracusan Empire.

311 BC e. - the second agreement of the Diadochi on the division of spheres of influence. The murder of the nominal kings of the state of Philip III Arrvdey and the son of Alexander the Great, Alexander.

310–304 BC e. - reign of King Eumelus in the Bosporus.

306 BC e. - Diadochi accept royal titles. The beginning of the formation of new Hellenistic states on the ruins of Alexander's empire.

301 BC e. - the battle of two coalitions of diadochi at Ipsus (Central Asia Minor).

281 BC e. - Battle of Kouroupedion in Lydia. Victory of Seleucus over Lysimachus. The end of the wars of the Diadochi. Formation of Hellenistic states.

280 BC e. - formation of the Achaean League.

280–277 BC e. - invasion of the Celts (Gauls) into Balkan Greece.

277 BC e. - the defeat of the Celts in the battle of Lysimachia by Antigonus Gonatas and his confirmation as king of Macedonia.

275–215 BC e. - tyranny of Hiero II in Syracuse.

274–271 BC e. - The First Syrian War between the Seleucids and Ptolemies.

267–262 BC e. - war of the coalition of Greek city-states against Macedonia (Chremonides War).

258–253 BC e. - Second Syrian War.

245–243 BC e. - Third Syrian War (War of Laodicea).

245–213 BC e. - Arat at the head of the Achaean League.

245–241 BC e. - reforms of King Agis IV in Sparta.

235–221 BC e. - continuation of reforms in Sparta by King Cleomenes III.

221 BC e. - defeat of the Spartan troops by Macedonia at Selassia.

220–217 BC e. - Allied war in Greece (war of Macedonia and the Achaean League against the Aetolians).

219–217 BC e. - Fourth Syrian War.

217 BC e. - defeat of the Seleucid troops from the Egyptians at Rafia.

215–205 BC e. - First Roman-Macedonian War.

207–192 BC e. - The tyranny of Nabis in Sparta.

200–196 BC e. - Second Roman-Macedonian War.

197 BC e. - Battle of Kinoscephalae. Defeat of the Macedonian troops.

192–188 BC e. - Roman-Syrian War.

190 BC e. - defeat of the Syrian troops by the Romans at Magnesia (Asia Minor).

188 BC e. - Apamean world. Weakening of the Seleucids.

171–167 BC e. - Third Macedonian War.

168 BC e. - defeat of the Macedonian troops near Pidna.

149–146 BC e. - a movement of democratic circles against Roman rule in Greece, led by Andriscus.

146 BC e. - defeat of Andrisk. Conquest of Greece and Macedonia by Rome.

132–129 BC e. - uprising of the Pergamon lower classes under the leadership of Aristonicus against Rome.

129 BC e. - Defeat of Antiochus VII Sdeta by the Parthians. Parthia's conquest of Mesopotamia.

107–106 BC e. - Savmak's uprising in the Bosporus. Inclusion of Bosporus into the power of Mithridates VI.

89–85 BC e. - 1st war of Mithridates VI with Rome.

83–82 BC e. - 2nd war of Mithridates VI with Rome.

74–63 BC e. - 3rd war of Mithridates VI with Rome. The defeat of the Pontic kingdom and its transformation into a Roman province.

63 BC e. - transformation of the Syrian kingdom into a Roman province,

30 BC e. - Occupation of Egypt by Roman troops. Transformation of Egypt into a Roman province. End of the Hellenistic period.

The history of Ancient Greece is usually divided into five periods: the Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean period (III - II millennium BC), the Homeric period (XI-X centuries BC), the Archaic period (VIII -VII centuries . BC), classical period (V -IV centuries BC), Hellenistic period (second half of the 4th - mid-1st century BC). The first three eras are often combined under the general name of the Preclassic period.

The artistic creativity of Hellas for the first time in the history of the world established realism as the absolute norm of art. But realism does not lie in the exact copying of nature, but in completing what nature could not accomplish. Art had to strive for that perfection that she only hinted at, but which she herself did not achieve.

Periodization of the history and culture of Ancient Greece

· Creto-Mycenaean period: 3 - 2 millennium BC. e.

In the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. There is a massive movement of southern European tribes to the south, in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The first states of the Achaeans (Knossos, Festus, Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos) were formed in the beginning. 2nd millennium, during the Bronze Age.

By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The Ionians established themselves on the western coast of Asia Minor, which became known as Ionia.

Aegean culture (the general name for Bronze Age civilizations on the islands of the Aegean Sea, Crete, mainland Greece and Asia Minor) developed unevenly, its centers experienced periods of decline and prosperity at different times. Cities fortified by walls with towers and bastions, with public buildings and temples appeared in western Anatolia in the 3rd millennium BC. e.; fortified settlements in mainland Greece - at the end of the 3rd millennium; on Crete, fortresses have been unknown since the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Aegean and Cretan-Mycenaean culture is a link between the cultures of the East and Ancient Greece. It covered several areas with their own original cultural couples and at the same time intertwined with each other. The most ancient of the centers of Aegean culture was Troy, glorified by Homer. In the Bronze Age, Crete became a significant cultural center. Here, for the first time in the history of Europe, a slave-owning society arose, and flourishing cities were formed: Knossos, Festus, Gournia.

In the 15th century BC. As a result of a natural disaster, Crete loses its leading role and is conquered by the Achaeans. At the beginning of the 12th century BC. During the Trojan War, the early slave states of the Aegean world fell into decline. Soon after the Trojan War, a new wave of Greek tribes, the Dorians, began moving from the north, which continued throughout the 11th century BC. This wave destroyed the centers of Aegean culture. The invasion of the Dorians led to the collapse of states and the revival of tribal relations.